Adverbs

Arabic has adverbial accusatives formed from nouns and adjectives, as well as true adverbs.

The adverb of time  x£›!¯šZ Hq5®!’

/JY£±!› H\5®!•£�   I traveled in the evening.

  JY£±!›   "Evening" defines the time of the travel.

The adverb of place  x£¼!¿šZ Hq5®!’

/Iæ9¾!¶I¿šZ !Í5©!† HÍ5±!¾!‰   I sat under the umbrella.

  Iæ9¾!¶I¿šZ !Í5©!†   "Under the umbrella" defines the place of sitting.

Other examples:

  !w£›!~ (in front of)

 !Ü5¾!‹  (behind)

 !r5Â!•  (above)

True adverbs, such as IÔ5›!~  or £ÀH�   are indeclinable.


Objects

The object of a verb is in the accusative case.

The direct object may be a noun:

 /![£¤šZ HáH‰!®šZ !Ñ!¥!•    The man opened the door.

The door (![£¤šZ ) is the direct object of the opening action (!Ñ!¥!• ) performed by the man (HáH‰!®šZ ), the subject.

It can also be an attached pronoun:

!t  in:

 /HâT¾!·H¿šZ !ß!šÆ�    The teacher asked you.

Or an independent pronoun:

Hy£N   in:

 /Hy£N  !ßH¥5Ã!µ5“~   I gave it to you.

The word for word translation is "I gave you it."

The direct object may precede the subject or follow it:

!Í5Ã!¤šZ   in:

 /!tÂ…~ !Í5Ã!¤šZ ç!À!… Your father built the house.

The word for word translation is "built the house your father."

The following is a list of independent accusative pronouns.  These are used for the direct object if two objects are present:

me	!{£N
you (MS)	!t£N
you (FS)	It£N
him	Hy£N
her	£�£N
you (D)	£¿H˜£N
them (D)	£¿H�£N
us	£œ£N
you (MP)	âH˜£N
you (FP)	9ãH˜£N
them (MP)	âH�£N
them (FP)	9ãH�£N

See also:

Pronouns


Cardinal Numbers

The basic forms of the numbers, as used in counting, are as follows:

¬IŠZz	1
x£À5‡I	2
æ!‡ë!‡	3
æ!·!…5f!~	4
æ!±5¿!‹	5
æ9¥I�	6
æ!·5¤!�	7
æÃIœ£¿!‡	8
æ!·5±I†	9
|!®!²!“	10
®!²!“ ¬!Š!~	11
®!²!“ £À5‡I	12
®!²!“  !æ!‡£!¾!‡	13
®!²!“ !æ!·!…5f~	14
®!²!“ !æ!±5¿!‹	15
®!²!“ !æ9¥I�	16
®!²!“ !æ!·5¤!�	17
®!²!“ !æIÃIœ£¿!‡	18
®!²!“ !æ!·5±I†	19
xz®5²!“	20
xz®5²!“z ¬IŠZz	21
xz®5²!“z x£À5‡I	22
xz®5²!“z æ!‡ë!‡	23
xz®5²!“z æ!·!…5f!~	24
xz®5²!“z æ!±5¿!‹	25
xz®5²!“z æ9¥I�	26
xz®5²!“z æ!·5¤!�	27
xz®5²!“z æÃIœ£¿!‡	28
xz®5²!“z æ!·5±I†	29

The compound numbers 31-99 have the same pattern as 21-29.

xzHë!‡	30
xÂ·!…5f!~	40
xÂ±5¿!‹	50
xÂN¥I�	60
xÂ·5¤!�	70
xÂœ£¿!‡	80
xÂ5±I†	90
æ!ÉI›  or  æ¡£›	100
x£¥!ÉI›	200
æ!ÉI› ]ë!‡	300
æ!ÉI› Ú!…5f!~	400
æ!ÉI› Ô5¿!‹	500
æ!ÉI› NÍI�	600
æ!ÉI› Ú5¤!�	700
æ!ÉI› åIœ£¿!‡	800
æ!ÉI› Ú5±I†	900
Ü5š!~	1000

Compound numbers from 101-999 are formed as follows:

¬IŠZz!z æ!ÉI›	101
x£À5‡4!z æ!ÉI›	102
®!²!“ !æ!±5¿!‹!z x£¥!ÉI›	215
xÂ·5À!�!z æ9¥I�!z æ!ÉI› ]ë!‡	376

See also:

Counted Nouns

Ordinal Numbers


Counted Nouns

One and two:

A singular or dual noun is used to indicate one or two items:

a day, one day w5Â!

two days x£›5Â!

an hour, one hour æ!“£�

two hours x£¥!“£�

A number may be added for emphasis or contrast:

one day  ¬IŠZz w5Â!

two days x£À5‡I x£›5Â!

one hour |!¬IŠZz æ!“£�

two hours x£¥À5‡I x£¥!“£�

Note that ¬IŠZz  and x£À5‡I  are adjectives which agree in gender and case with the nouns they modify.

Three and above:

When numbers occur with counted nouns, the forms of both the number and the noun follow special rules.  With some numbers the counted noun is plural, and with others the noun is singular.

Both the number and the counted noun change according to case, as well as gender.

The rules for expressing numbers with counted nouns in Modern Standard Arabic are very complicated.  Examples are given below so that you can recognize them when you are reading or listening.

In speaking, you may use the basic numbers followed by a plural noun, as is common in colloquial dialects.

Examples:

two seconds later; in two seconds ãÃ¥!ºÃ–!d ¬5·!…

three minutes ÝI¡£–!d ]ë!‡

four weeks ÚÃœ£�!~ æ!·!…5f!~

one thousand and one nights æ!¾5Ã!š!z æ!¾5Ã!š Ü5š!~

I spent 23 years there. .t£ÀH� õ›£“ ãÃ5²I“ HÍ5Ã!´!–

for a period of 61 hours æ!“£� ãÃN¥�!z }¬5ŠI |9¬H¿Iš

See also:

Cardinal Numbers

Gender

Case


Ordinal Numbers

With the exception of "first," ordinal numbers (æ9ÃI¤Ã†5®!¥šZ HdZ¬5“ìZ ) are formed from the cardinal numbers (æ9ÃI¾5�ìZ HdZ¬5“ìZ ) following the pattern áI“£•  for the masculine, and æ!¾I“£•  for the feminine.

The words for first are v9z~  for the masculine, and çšzH~  for the feminine.

Ordinal numbers match the gender of the ordered object both in the simple and the composite forms:

Masculine

 v9zìZ HáH‰!®šZ  the first man

 ÎIš£¦šZ Há5³!¹šZ  the third act

 ®IŽ£·šZ á‰®šZ  the tenth man

 !®²“ !Ú…Z®šZ Ô Âš 	 Louis the fourteenth

Feminine

 çšzìZ H|!¬TÃ!±šZ  the first lady

 æ!·I…Z®šZ Hæ!¾!Š®¿šZ  the fourth stage

 |®Ž£·šZ |~®¿šZ  the tenth woman

 !|®²“ !æ·�£¥šZ H|ÂµªšZ  the nineteenth step

Composite ordinal numbers from !®²“ !{d£©šZ  until !®²“ !Ú�£¥šZ  are always indeclinable.

See also:

Cardinal Numbers

Gender


Fractions

With the exception of Ü³Iœ (half), fractions (fÂ±H¼šZ ) are built from the cardinal number. They are masculine in gender regardless of the gender of the object.  Composite numbers have no fraction form, but are stated as:

 |®²“ Ô¿‹ ã› ¬ŠZz  one out of fifteen,  "one fifteenth"

Examples:

5Ü5³Iœ  one half
Î5¾H‡  one third
Ú5…Hf  one fourth
Ô5¿H‹  one fifth
i5¬H�  one sixth
Ú5¤H� one seventh
ã5¿H‡  one eighth
Ú5±H†  one ninth
®5²H“  one tenth
ã ®²“ ã› ¬ŠZz  one twentieth, "one out of twenty"
Percentages are built by the number of the percentage followed by æÉ!¿š£…  ("in one hundred"):

æ!ÉI¿š£… æ!ÃIœ£¿!‡  eight percent

See also: Cardinal Numbers


All and Some

Há˜  means "each" or "every" when followed by an indefinite singular noun: ®¿†È¿šZ å• 4ÔÃ¡f Há˜  â¾¼† . Each president spoke at the conference.

When followed by a definite noun, it means "all":

!®¿†È¿šZ IY£�þ®šZ Há˜ ®´Š . All the presidents attended the conference.

The noun that follows á˜  , definite or indefinite, is in the genitive case. A pronoun suffix may be attached to á˜  to mean " all of them, all of him, all of us," etc.:

âÁS¾˜ HY£�þ®šZ ®´Š  	The presidents came, all of them.

ä9¾˜ ![£¥¼šZ H\~®–  I read the book, all of it.

|®�£©¿šZ çš £ÀN¾˜ £À¤�e  We all went to the lecture.

£Á9¾˜ æ‰£‰¬šZ £À¾˜~  We ate all of the chicken.

×·…  means "some" and is followed by a definite noun in the genitive case;

IÌ¥¼šZ !×·… H\~®– 	I read some of the books.

®¿†È¿šZ çš Zz®´Š IY£�þ®šZ H×·…  Some presidents attended the conference.

As in the case of á˜ , a pronoun suffix may be attached to ×·…  to mean "some of."

®¿†È¿šZ çš £ÀH´·… Ì�e  Some of us went to the conference.

âÁ!´·… q®“~  I know some of them.

See also:

Nouns and Adjectives


Prepositions

Prepositions (N®!¨šZ HqH®5Š~ ) take a noun in the genitive case, forming a preposition phrase. The following is a list of common Arabic prepositions:

ãI›  	(from, than)

çš  	(to, towards)

5ã!“ 	(from, about)

ç!¾!“ 	(on, upon)

å• 	(in, concerning, into)

ƒI[ 	(by, in, at, with; causal and oath.)

ƒ!t 	(like)

ƒIv  	(for, to, belonging to)

!z 	(introducer of an oath.)

5­H› 	(since)

H­5ÀH›  	same as 5­H›

çN¥Š	(until)

Examples:

/Iæ·…Z®šZ çN¥Š H\5®¶¥œZ   I waited until four oclock.

/IÌ!¥5¼!¿šZ å• Â�   He's in the office.

See also:

Case


Pronouns

Pronouns (®I¡£¿!´šZ ) are words that refer to certain nouns in the text, such as:

£œ~  (I) or  Hã5©!œ   (we).

Arabic pronouns have:

gender (masculine or feminine)

number (singular, dual or plural)

case (nominative, accusative or genitive)

There are four families of Arabic pronouns.

Personal  æ9ÃI³5ª!²šZ H®I¡£¿!´šZ

Demonstrative  |!f£ŽîZ HY£¿5�~

Relative  vÂ�Â!¿šZ HYH£¿5�~

Interrogative  w£Á5¹I¥5�êZ HY£¿5�~


Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns (æ9ÃI³5ª!²šZ H®I¡£¿!´šZ ) have two forms:

  	Independent: ã©œ  (we)

  	Attached: £œ  (we) in £À5¤!¥!˜  (we wrote)


Independent Pronouns

Pronouns differ according to gender:

  	®9˜!­H¿šZ 	(M)asculine

  	Î9œ!ÈH¿šZ 	(F)eminine

Pronouns differ according to number:

  	d!®5¹H¿šZ	(S)ingular

  	çNÀ!¦H¿šZ	(D)ual

  	Ú5¿!¨šZ	(P)lural

The following is a list of independent pronouns (æ!¾I³!¹5ÀH¿šZ H®I¡£¿!´šZ ):

I	£œ~
you (MS)	!Íœ~
you (FS)	IÍœ~
he	!ÂH�
she	!åI�
you (D)	£¿H¥œ~
they (D)	£¿H�
we	Hã©!œ
you (MP)	âH¥œ~
you (FP)	9ãH¥œ~
they (MP)	âH�
they (FP)	9ãH�

See also:

Attached Pronouns

Objects


Attached Pronouns

Attached pronouns (æ!¾I³9¥H¿šZ H®I¡£¿!´šZ ) are in the form of one or more letters attached to the end of a noun or a verb as a suffix.  Object pronouns and possessive pronouns are attached:

{  in åÀ!…!®!�  (he hit me) or  å…£¥I˜ (my book)

£œ  in   	£À!·I¿!� (he heard us), or £ÀH…£¥I˜  (our book)

The table below shows the endings for possessive and object pronouns:

my	{
me	åœ
your, you (MS)	!t
your, you (FS)	It
his, him	Hy
her	£�
your, you (D)	£¿H˜
their, them (D)	£¿H�
our, us	£œ
your, you (MP)	5âH˜
your, you (FP)	9ãH˜
their, them (MP)	5âH�
their, them (FP)	9ãH�

See also:

Independent Pronouns

The Object


Demonstrative Pronouns

The demonstrative pronouns (|!f£ŽîZ HY£¿5�~ ), this, these, that and those, are as follows:

	this/ these	that/ those
Singular M	Z­!�	!ßIš!e
Singular F	y­!�	!ß¾I†
Dual M	Iã ­!� - IxZ­!�	ßIÀ5 !e - !ßIœZe
Dual F	IãÃ!†£!� - Ix£†£!�	ßIÀ5Ã!† - !ßIœ£†
Plural	YêÈ!�	!ßIÉ!šz~

See also:

Gender

Dual

Plural


Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns (æ!šÂ�5Â!¿šZ HY£¿5�ìZ ) relate a clause to a noun or pronoun that precedes it in the text.

Relative pronouns, such as {­9šZ  (that) differ according to gender, number and case.

Examples:

t£9Ã!Š {­šZ HáH‰!®šZ   (the man who saluted you)

/!ß!¿9¾!“ ã!› wI®˜~   (Honor the one who taught you.)

	Nominative	Accusative and Genitive
Singular (M)	{­9šZ	{­9šZ
Singular (F)	å¥9šZ	å¥9šZ
Dual (M)	IxZ­!¾šZ	Iã !­!¾šZ
Dual (F)	Ix£¥!¾šZ	IãÃ!¥!¾šZ
Plural (M)	!ã I­9šZ	!ã I­9šZ
Plural (F)	å†ëšZ	å†ëšZ

See also:

Case


Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns (w£Á5¹I¥5�êZ HY£¿5�~ ) are used to form questions.  They do not vary according to gender, number or case, with the exception of S{~  (which). The following is a list of common interrogative pronouns:

5ã!›   	who, for persons:

?!Í5œ~ 5ã!›   Who are you?

 £›    Ze£›   what, for things:

?!ß!·!› Ze£›   What do you have?

?Z­!� £›   What is this?

  	ç¥!› 	 	when, used with past and present tenses:

?!ÍÃ!†~ ç¥!›  When did you come?

?HÌ!�­!  ç¥!›   When does he go?

  	!ã5 ~ 	where:

?HáH‰!®šZ !ã5 !~   Where is the man?

  	!Ü5Ã!˜	how:

?!ßHš£Š !Ü5Ã!˜   How are you? (literally, "How is your condition?")

  	5â!˜ 	how many:

?!\~®!– õ…£¥I˜ 5â!˜   How many books did you read?

This is the only interrogative pronoun that changes with gender and case:

  	S{~ 	who, which:

?!Y£‰ 4áH‰!f S{~   Which man came?

See also:

Interrogative Particles


Inna and its Sisters
Inna and its Sisters £Á†ZÂ‹~z Rx

These are particles that act like the verbs kaana and its sisters £Á†ZÂ‹~z Gx£˜

to modify the meaning of a nominal sentence. They cannot be followed by a verb, but only by the subject of a nominal sentence, which is then called the noun of inna or any of its sisters £Á†ZÂ‹~z Rx â�Z.

The sisters of inna are: RxÆ˜ ,GÍMÃ!š ,9á·š ,Rã¼š ,Rxì ,Rx~ and Rx .

They cannot be followed by an independent pronoun (Rã� ,â� ,Rã¥œ~ & â¥œ~ ã©œ ,å� ,Â� ,IGÍœ~ ,£œ~  etc.), but may take an attached possessive pronoun: (Rã˜ ,â˜ ,I!t ,£œ ,{ ,6ã� ,â�  etc.).  The subject of the subsequent nominal sentence is accusative.

1 - Rx  is used for emphasis at the beginning of a nominal sentence or after the verb 'said' !v£ . It connotes the meaning 'it is confirmed' or ' it is a matter of fact that', and is usually not translated into English, although it is sometimes translated as 'verily' or 'indeed'.

2- Rxì  'because'

3- Rã¼š   'but'

4- 9á·š    'it is wished or anticipated that, perhaps'

5- GÍMÃ!š  'it is hoped'

6- RxÆ˜  'as if'

See also:

Kaana and its Sisters


Idafa
Idafa æ•£�îZ

The idafa consists of at least two nouns drawn together into a relation of possession or affiliation. To understand the idafa, one should think of such English constructions as:

 the history professor  IÒ f£¥šZ  He£¥�~

 the company manager  Iæ˜®²šZ  H® ¬›

 the office of the secretary  I®Ã†®¼±šZ  HÌ¥¼›

There are four basic points to remember about the idafa:

1. Only the final noun of the idafa string can take the definite article (vZ ) or a possessive pronoun suffix (£� - It - !t - { , etc). The first noun of the idafa (q£´¿šZ ) is always definite by virtue of its relation to the second noun (äÃš q£´¿šZ ):

äÃš q£´¿šZ  	q£´¿šZ   	Noun II,  Noun I

Iæ˜®²šZ  	H® ¬› 	the company director

IÌ¥¼¿šZ  	HÔÃ¡f 	the office manager

IÒ f£¥šZ  	He£¥�~ 	the history professor

2. The final noun of the idafa may or may not take the definite article or the possessive pronoun, thus making the whole construction either definite or indefinite, as follows:

äÃš q£´¿šZ  	q£´¿šZ   	Noun II,  Noun I

4æ˜®Ž  	H® ¬› 	a company director

4Ì¥¼›  	HÔÃ¡f 	an office manager

4Ò f£†  	He£¥�~ 	a history professor

4e£¥�~  	H|f£NÃ� 	a professor's car

Ie£¥�ìZ  	H|f£NÃ� 	the professor's car

{e£¥�~  	H|f£NÃ� 	my professor's car

3. The idafa becomes more complex when we construct a relationship among three nouns. It is then like the English expression 'the friend of my sister's husband'.  In such a case, all non-final nouns act like the first noun, and can never take the definite article vZ .

Examples:

3	2	1	Noun III, Noun II, Noun I
Ie£¥�ìZ	Tâ“	Hã…Z	the professor's uncle's son
IÒ f£¥šZ	Ie£¥�~	H|f£NÃ�	the history professor's car
å‹~	Iæ‰zg	Hæº ¬�	my brother's wife's friend

4. An idafa may be followed by an adjective or two to modify any of the nouns constructed in the idafa.

Examples:

æ¹�	äÃš q£´¿šZ	q£´¿šZ	Adjective, Noun II, Noun I
I¬ ¬¨šZ	IÒ f£¥šZ	He£¥�~	the new history professor
H|¬ ¬¨šZ	Iâ±ºšZ	H|® ¬›	the new chairwoman of the department
HÜÃµ¾šZ	å‹~	HÝ ¬�	my  brother's nice friend OR,
IÜÃµ¾šZ	å‹~	HÝ ¬�	my nice brother's friend

In the last example, the relationship between the adjective and the two nouns of the idafa is ambiguous. The adjective could be modifying either noun, as demonstrated above. Case endings, gender agreement, as well as context will help us deal with the ambiguity.

The second or last noun in the idafa string (äÃš q£´¿šZ ) must always be in the genitive case, as shown in the above examples. The first noun (q£´¿šZ ) may be in any case, depending on the grammatical function of the whole idafa construction in the sentence.

See also:

Nouns and Adjectives


Indicative Perfect


Indicative Imperfect


Verbs

Arabic verbs (v£·5•ìZ ) may be in the perfect or imperfect tense.

The perfect denotes a completed action and is equivalent to the past tense.

The imperfect may denote an incomplete action, equivalent to the present tense, or an action that has not started yet, equivalent to the future tense.

Arabic verbs have three moods:

  	indicativeÚ5•!®šZ

  	subjunctiveÌ³!ÀšZ

  	jussivew5¯!¨šZ

They have two voices:

  	activewÂ¾5·!›

  	passivevÂÁ5¨!›

The root of the verb consists of three (or four) consonants.

Example: the root of the verb (to write) is [ \ t  .

See also:

Indicative Perfect

Indicative Imperfect

Subjunctive

Jussive

Imperative

Strong and Weak Verbs

Conjugation: Stem I

Derivations: Stems I - X

Conjugation: Weak Verb


Future

The future tense (á!¤5º!¥5±H¿šZ Há5·I• ) is built from the present by adding i  as a prefix, or by preceding it with !q5Â!� :

 HÌH¥5˜~ !q5Â!�   or  HÌH¥5˜Æ�  (I will write. / I'm going to write.)

See also:

Indicative Imperfect


Subjunctive

The subjunctive (Ì5³!ÀšZ ) is similar to the imperfect indicative.  It is characterized by the deletion of x  and by the changing of final H  to  or by a lack of change, as in the second and third person feminine plural forms.

	imperfect	subjunctive
I	HÌH¥5˜!~	!ÌH¥5˜!~
you, M	HÌH¥5¼!†	!ÌH¥5¼!†
you, F	!ãÃ¤H¥5¼!†	å¤H¥5¼!†
he	HÌH¥5¼!	!ÌH¥5¼!
she	HÌH¥5¼!†	!ÌH¥5¼!†
we	HÌH¥5¼!œ	!ÌH¥5¼!œ
you, MP	!xÂ¤H¥5¼!†	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!†
you, FP	!ã5¤H¥5¼!†	!ã5¤H¥5¼!†
they, M	!xÂ¤H¥5¼!	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!
they, F	!ã5¤H¥5¼!	!ã5¤H¥5¼!

Pronunciation note: The final Z  in the second and third masculine plural forms is not pronounced.

A verb following a subjunctive particle is in the subjunctive mood.  Some subjunctive particles are:

 Nå!˜  ,çN¥!Š  ,5ã!š  ,5x~

The most common subjunctive particle is 5x~ .

Examples:

/!â9¾!·!†~ 5å!˜ HiHf5d~	I study in order to learn.
/!â9¾!·!†~ çN¥!Š HiHf5d~	I study in order to learn.
/!Ì!�5e~ 5x~ H¬ f~	I want to go.
/!Ì!�5e~ 5ã!š	I will not go.
See also:

Subjunctive Particles


Jussive

The jussive (w5¯!¨šZ ) is similar to the imperfect indicative.  It is characterized by the deletion of x  and by the diacritic sign "sukuun" 5  over the last letter,  or by a lack of change, as in the second and third person feminine plural forms.

	imperfect	jussive
I	HÌH¥5˜!~	5ÌH¥5˜!~
you, M	HÌH¥5¼!†	5ÌH¥5¼!†
you, F	!ãÃ¤H¥5¼!†	å¤H¥5¼!†
he	HÌH¥5¼!	5ÌH¥5¼!
she	HÌH¥5¼!†	5ÌH¥5¼!†
we	HÌH¥5¼!œ	5ÌH¥5¼!œ
you, MP	!xÂH¤H¥5¼!†	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!†
you, FP	!ã5¤H¥5¼!†	!ã5¤H¥5˜Z
they, M	!xÂH¤H¥5¼!	ZÂH¤H¥5¼!
they, F	!ã5¤H¥5¼!	!ã5¤H¥5¼!
Pronunciation note: The final Z  in the second and third masculine plural forms is not pronounced.

Jussive particles include:  á•  5â!š  ê

Examples:

 /5â9¾!¼!¥!  5â!š   He did not speak.

 /IÛ5³H† ê   Don't listen.

 /ZÂ¾!¤5º!  5â!š   They did not accept.

For the jussive forms of hollow or defective weak verbs in the present tense forms, the long vowels Z  z  {  are reduced to their short counterparts:

 5fH¯† (!Íœ~)  becomesHfz¯† (!Íœ~)

 å¸5³H† (!Í5œ~)  becomes IÛ5³H†  5â!š (!Í5œ~) .

 ç�®H† (!Í5œ~)  becomes !l5®H†  5â!š (!Í5œ~) .

See also:

Jussive Particles


Imperative

The imperative (®5›ìZ Há5·• ) is used for affirmative commands.

For many verbs, if the second letter of the second person jussive carries a vowel, it is formed by deleting the first letter, as follows:  5â9¾!·!† - 5â9¾!·!¥!†  (learn)

In many cases in which the second letter of the second person jussive tense carries a sukuun, the first letter is deleted and replaced with a vowel:  5ÌH¥5˜H~ - 5ÌH¥5¼!†   (write)

See also:

Derivations: Stems I - X

Jussive


Strong and Weak Verbs

Verbs are divided into two categories: strong or sound ÑÃ©!³šZ ,

and weak  Ná!¥5·H¿šZ .

The sound or strong verb is a verb that has no long vowels ({  ,z  ,Z ) in its root, such as !Ì!¥!˜  (to write) and !_!®5Š!d  (to roll).

The weak verb is a verb that has a defective letter in its root:

 !¬!“!z  (to promise) and ç›!f  (to throw).

The defective letters are ({  ,z  ,Z ).

Assimilated verbs are those whose first root letter is a z  or {  .  Hollow verbs have a weak letter as the second letter of the root, and defective verbs have a weak letter as the last letter of the root.  These weak letters are often deleted, or change in some way, depending on the phonetic environment.

See also:

Conjugation: Weak Verb


Kaana and its Sisters
Kaana and its Sisters £Á†ZÂ‹~z !x£˜

The nominal sentence in Arabic is affirmative and is in the present tense. In order to make a modification in the function and meaning of a nominal sentence, we must use a group of verbs whose basic function is to work on the nominal sentence. This group of verbs is named£Á†ZÂ‹~z !x£˜ or "kaana and its sisters" after the verb!x£˜ which changes the nominal sentence to the past tense.

Thus:

/£À� H® ¬¿šZ   The director is here.

can be changed to the past by using !x£˜ so the sentence becomes:

/£À� H® ¬¿šZ !x£˜  The director was here.

Kaana and its sisters take the predicate in the accusative case.

Example:

/KáÃ¿‰ HÔºµšZ  "The weather is beautiful."  becomes:

/JëÃ¿‰ HÔºµšZ !x£˜  "The weather was beautiful."

/K®•£±› HÔÃ¡®šZ  "The president is traveling." becomes:

/JZ®•£±› HÔÃ¡®šZ !x£˜  "The president was traveling."

The following is a list of kaana's sisters with sample sentences:

1)  !Ô5Ã!š (not  conjugates like a verb)

/KáÃ¿‰ HÔºµšZ  "The weather is beautiful." becomes:

/JëÃ¿‰ HÔºµšZ !Ô5Ã!š  "The weather is not beautiful."

2) !Ñ!¤5�!~ &ç±5›~ &!f£� &!\£…  (become)

/JZ® ¬› åº ¬� !Ñ!¤5�~

/JZ® ¬› åº ¬�}±5›~

/JZ® ¬› åº ¬� f£�

/JZ® ¬› åº ¬� !\£…

The above four sentences all translate as, "My friend became a manager."

3) ÍšZg£› & vZg£›  (still - conjugates)

/J£¿¡£œ HÔÃ¡®šZ !vZg £›  The president is still asleep.

4) 9á!’ & !åIº!…  (to remain, to continue)

/J£Š£¤� æÀ›£¦šZ æ“£±šZ çN¥Š JY£±› æ·…£±šZ æ“£±šZ ã› õ¿¡£œ HÔÃ¡®šZ 9á!’

The president remained asleep from 7 p.m. to 8 a.m.

 /áÃ¾šZ á˜ ® ®º¥šZ ç¾“ xÂ¾¿·  xÂ¹N’Â¿šZ !åIº!…

The employees kept working on the report all night.

5) !wZd£›  (as long as - conjugates)

/ä¤¾¼… åÀ“~ !qÂ±• ô®•£±› åº ¬� !wZd£›

As long as my friend is traveling, I will look after his dog.

See also:

Verbs

Conjugation: Weak Verb

Inna and its Sisters


Derivations: Stems I - X

[Strong Verbs - Derived Stems]

The following tables show the different patterns of verb forms I through X. The root  v-o-q   means "verb"  also the verb "to do" in Form I - and is used to demonstrated the patterns.

Forms I-V:

Active	I	II	III	IV	V
Perfect	!á!·!•	!á9·!•	!á!“£!•	!á!·5•!~	!á9·!¹!†
Imperfect	Há!·5¹!	HáT·!¹H	HáI“£!¹H	HáI·5¹H	Há9·!¹!¥!
Imperative	5á!·5•	5áT·!•	5áI“£!•	5áI·5•!~	5á9·!¹!†
Participle	KáI“£•	KáT·!¹H›	KáI“£!¹H›	KáI·5¹H›	KáT·!¹!¥H›
Verbal Noun	Ká5·I•	KáÃI·5¹!†	Kv£!·I•	Kv£!·5•	KáS·!¹!†
Passive	I	II	III	IV	V
Perfect	!áI·H•	!áT·H•	!áI·5•HZ	!áT·H¹H†
Imperfect	Há!·5¹H	Há9·!¹H	Há!“£!¹H	5á!·5¹H	Há9·!¹!¥H
Participle	KvÂ·5¹!›	Ká9·!¹H›	Ká!“£!¹H›	Ká!·5¹H›	Ká9·!¹!¥H›
Forms VI-X:

Active	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
Perfect	!á!“£¹†	!á!·!¹5œZ	!á!·!¥5•Z	9á!·5•Z	!á!·5¹!¥5�Z
Imperfect	Há!“£¹!¥!	HáI·!¹5À!	HáI·!¥5¹!	Sá!·5¹!	HáI·5¹!¥5±!
Imperative	5á!“£¹!†	-	5áI·!¥5•Z	5áI¾!·5•Z	5áI·5¹!¥5�Z
Participle	KáI“£¹!¥H›	KáI·!¹5ÀH›	KáI·!¥5¹H›	>á!·5¹H›	KáI·5¹!¥5±H›
Verbal Noun	KáH“£¹!†	Kv£·I¹5œIZ	Kv£!·I¥5•Z	KvëI·5•Z	Kv£!·5¹I¥5�Z
Passive	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
Perfect	!áI“ÂH¹H†	-	!áI·H¥5•HZ	-	!áI·5¹H¥5�HZ
Imperfect	Há!“£!¹!¥H	-	Há!·!¥5¹H	-	Há!·5º!¥5±H
Participle	Ká!·¾!¹!¥H›	-	Ká!·!¥5¹H›	-	Ká!·5¹!¥5±H›


Vocative Particles

Vocative particles (YZ¬IÀšZ HqH®5Š~ ) are used before nouns to do the following:

Call someone or someones attention

Call for help

Exclaim

Lament or express physical pain

The most common vocative particle is £  .

  	Examples:

 |!®5±!Š £   alas, what a pity

 ä¾šZ £   O, God


Subjunctive Particles

The following are subjunctive particles (Ì5³!ÀšZ HqH®5Š~ ):

 5x~   that:

/!®I•£�~ x~ H¬ fH~  I want to travel.

 5ã!š  will not:

/!®I•£�~ 5ã!š   I will not travel.

çN¥Š  in order to:

/!â9¾·¥† çN¥Š ~®–    I read in order to learn.

These particles are followed by a verb in the subjunctive.

See also:

Subjunctive


Jussive Particles

The jussive mood has many functions, including negation of the past and of commands.

The following are jussive particles (w5¯!¨šZ H\Zz!d~ ):

ê  , 5â!š

Examples:

/o£¿¥‰êZ çš 5Ì�e~ 5âš

I did not go to the meeting.

/Ø�zìZ r®²šZ çš Zz®•£±  5âš

They did not travel to the Middle East.

See also:

Jussive


Negative Particles

Negative particles (Ô5ÀI¨5¾Iš Hæ!ÃI•£ÀšZ êz å5¹!ÀšZ H\Zzd~ ) are placed at the start of the sentence unless they negate a specific word only.  There are a number of negative particles; each has its special use.

Examples:

  	ê 	no or not:

/£É5Ã!Ž HßH¾5¿!  ê  He does not own a thing.

  	£› 	no; negates a nominal sentence:

/å¥5Ã!¤!˜ Kx£¼!› £›  No place like my home.

  	!Ô5Ã!š 	is not; behaves as a verb and is conjugated:

  	/JZ¬ ¬‰ H[£¥¼šZ !Ô5Ã!š The book is not new.

/£¿!š£“ HÍ5±Iš  I am not a scientist.

  	Usage:

  	£› 	With the perfect, it negates the past:

/!Ì!¥!˜ £›  He did not write.

  	5â!š 	With the jussive, it negates the past:

/5ÌH¥5¼!  5â!š  He did not write.

  	5ã!š 	With the subjunctive, it negates the future:

/!ÌH¥5¼!  5ã!š  He will not, or will never, write.

  	£› 	With the imperfect, it negates the present:

 /HÌH¥5¼!  £›  He is not writing. (now)

  	ê 	With the imperfect, it is an absolute or general negation, and may refer to any time:

/ÌH¥5¼!  ê   He does not write.

  	 ê  With a noun in the accusative, and without nunation:

 9ßŽ ê   no doubt

See also:

Jussive

Subjunctive


Conjunction Particles

There are nine conjunction particles (Ü5µ!·šZ HqH®5Š~ ):

1.  	  !z (and) joins two nouns, verb, prepositions or sentences without regards to 	sequence:

/HâT¾!·H¿šZz HÌIš£µšZ !Y£‰  The student and the teacher came.

/![I®!Žz !á˜~   He ate and drank.

/IÍÃ¤šZ çšz ã› !×˜f  He ran from and back to the house.

/ä·› HÍ¿¾¼†z å¹H©H³šZ HÍ¾…£–  I met with the journalist and talked to him.

2.    !q (then) joins two nouns in close sequence:

  	/HâT¾!·H¿š£• HÌIš£µšZ !Y£‰ The student came, then (immediately) the teacher.

3.    9âH‡ (then) joins two nouns in loose sequence:

/HâT¾!·H¿šZ 9âH‡ HÌIš£µšZ !Y£‰  The student came, then (some time later) the teacher.

4.    çN¥!Š (even, then) joins two nouns provided one is part of the other:

 /HvÂ±!¼šZ çN¥!Š H[NëHµšZ !ÑI¨!œ    The students passed, even the lazy one.

5.    5z!~ (or)

/æ9¾!¨!¿šZ z~  ![£¥I¼šZ ~®5–    Read the book or the magazine.

6.    5w!~ (or) used after the Hamzah (~ )of inquiry or equation:

?®!¿H“ 5w!~ !Y£‰ K¬5 !g!~   Did Zayd come or Omar?

7.  5á!…   (rather) joins words but not sentences:

/®!¿H“ 5á!… K¬5 !g !Y£‰   Zayd came, not Omar.

8.    ãI¼!š (but) joins words but not sentences.  It should be preceded by a negative, but not a (z) .

/K®!¿H“ 5ãI¼!š K¬5 !g \Æ  5â!š    Zayd did not come but Omar did.

9.    ê (not) joins words only and should be preceded by a positive:

  	/!|!¬ ®!¨šZ ê ![£¥!¼šZ ~!®–Z  Read the book, not the newspaper.


Interrogative Particles

á�  and ~  are question particles (w£Á5¹I¥5�êZ H\Zz!d~ ):

 ?tÂ‹~ Z­�~   Is this your brother?

 ?Kå¾“ !®•£�~   Did Ali travel [depart]?

 ?K|¬·¥±› IÍœ~ á�   Are you (f) ready?

 ?!ß!¾¿“ SÌ©† á�   Do you like your job?

See also:

Interrogative Pronouns


The Article
The Article vZ

Like English, Arabic has a definite article, vZ , corresponding to "the."  This definite article can be attached to adjectives as well as nouns:

the big house  H®Ã¤!¼šZ HÍ5Ã!¤šZ

the new man  ¬ ¬!¨šZ  áH‰9®šZ

vZ   has two pronunciations, depending on whether the letter that follows it is a "sun" (Ô5¿!²šZ ) or a "moon" (®!¿!ºšZ ) letter.  The labels "sun" and "moon" are used to refer to these two categories because the first letters of Ô¿Ž  and ®¿– are examples of sun and moon letters, respectively.

If vZ  is followed by a moon letter:

   Y z  y  w  t  r  q  p  o  b  a  _  [

then the definite article, vZ  , is pronounced "al."

Therefore, in the above example, ®Ã¤!¼šZ Í5Ã!¤šZ  would be pronounced, "albayt alkabiir."

If vZ  is followed by a "sun" letter:

 x  v  n  m  l  k  i  g  f  e  d  ]  \

then the  v  is not pronounced and the next letter is lengthened.

So,  ¬Ã·9±šZ  áH‰9®šZ  (the happy man) would be pronounced, "arrajul assaäiid."

Arabic does not have an indefinite article.

See also:

Alphabet and Pronunciation

Nouns and Adjectives


Nouns and Adjectives

Arabic nouns and adjectives perform in very similar ways.  They both can take the definite article, vZ  , and they vary according to gender (masculine or feminine), case (nominative, genitive or accusative) and number (singular, dual or plural).  Nouns may  be rational (human) or non-rational (non-human).

See also:

Gender

Case

Dual

Plural

Adjectives


Gender

All Arabic nouns are either masculine or feminine, whether they are animate (living) or inanimate (non-living).

Animate nouns take their gender according to meaning:

man (masculine)  áH‰!f

mother (feminine)  NwH~

Most inanimate feminine nouns end in | , and most inanimate masculine nouns end in another letter:

tree (feminine)  |!®!¨!Ž

school (feminine)  æ�!f5¬!›

book (masculine) [£¥I˜

heart (masculine) Ì5¾!–

Cities and most countries are feminine.

Damascus    Ý5²!›Id

Egypt  ®5³I›

One exception to this rule is:

Lebanon  x£À5¤Hš

See also:

Case


Case

Nouns and adjectives have one of three cases: nominative (Ú5•!®šZ ), accusative (Ì5³!Àš ), or genitive (N®!¨šZ ).  These cases are indicated by the endings,  H  ,  !    ,  and  I   .  These signs, which are generally not used in written Arabic, are pronounced as a short "u,"  "a," and "i," respectively.

The nominative case is often indicated by H   ("damma" æ9¿!� ).

The accusative case is often indicated by !   ("fatHa" æ!©5¥!•  ).

The genitive case in most nouns is indicated by  I   ("kasra" |!®5±!˜) .

See also:

Gender


Dual

In addition to singular and plural, Arabic also has dual (çNÀ!¦H¿šZ ).  It is formed by adding xZ  or ã   to the singular regardless of gender.

 xZ  is added to the singular in the nominative case:

 /IxëH‰!®šZ !á!˜~ The two men ate.

 /x£¥5ÀI¤šZ Í!†~ The two girls came.

 Iã   is added in the accusative and genitive:

/IãÃ!¾H‰!®šZ HÍ5 ~!f    I saw the two men.

/IãÃ!†!~!®5›IêZ HÍ5¿9¾!˜   I spoke to the two women.

/Iã5Ã!¾H‰!®š£I… H\5f!®!›    I passed by the two men.

/Iã5Ã!¥!¤Iš£µšZ Iã!“ HÍ5šÆ�   I asked about the two female students.

See also:

Plural

Case


 Plural

There are two types of plurals:

Sound plurals (âIš£±šZ HÚ¿!‰ ) are formed by adding a suffix.

Broken plurals (®Ã±5¼!¥šZ HÚ5¿!‰ ) are formed by making an internal change in the word.


Sound Plural

Sound plurals (âIš£±šZ HÚ5¿N¨šZ ) are divided into two categories:

âIš£±šZ I®9˜!­H¿šZ HÚ5¿!‰  	 Sound plural of masculine nouns.

âIš£±šZ IÎ9œ!È¿šZ HÚ5¿!‰  	 Sound plural of feminine nouns.

The sound plural of masculine nouns

This plural applies to nouns and adjectives relating to masculine rational (human) beings, and proper nouns.  These plurals are formed by adding xz  (for the nominative case) or ã   (for the accusative case) to the end of the singular.

Example:

teacher  iTf¬H›

teachers  !xÂ�Tf¬H› D !ãÃ�Tf!¬H›

/Ü9³šZ å• !xÂ�Tf!¬H¿šZ   The teachers are in class.

/ãÃ�Tf!¬H¿šZ [ëµšZ }~f   The students see the teachers.

employee    Ü9’!ÂH›

employees  !xÂ¹9’!ÂH›    D ãÃ¹9’!ÂH›

 /Ì!¥5¼!¿5šZ å• xÂ¹9’!ÂH¿šZ    The employees are in the office.

 /!ãÃ¹9’!ÂH¿šZ çš HÍ·!¿!¥5�IZ    I listened to the employees.

The sound plural of feminine nouns

This plural is formed by adding  \Z  to the end of the noun or adjective.

Nouns or adjectives ending with the feminine |-  drop this ending then add \Z-  :

tree   |!®!¨!Ž

trees   \Z®!¨!Ž

Some exceptions are:

woman - women Y£±Iœ  - |~!®›

nation - nations â!›H~ - æ9›H~

Other examples:

Elative (comparative/superlative) feminine adjectives:

great  greater or greatest \£ !®5¤H˜  - }®¤H˜

Nouns with the feminine ending  YZ  :

desert - deserts     \ZzZ®5©!� - YZ®5©!�

All nouns of foreign origin:

television - televisions \£œÂ ¯¹¾† - xÂ ¯¹¾†

See also:

Broken Plural


Broken Plural

The broken plural (®Ã±5¼!¥šZ HÚ5¿!‰ ) changes the form of the singular:

 ÌH¥H˜ - [£¥I˜  (book-books)

 |!­I†£�!~ - e£¥5�H~  (teacher-teachers)

The change is made by:

1.  addition of letters:  w£Á5�~ - â5Á!�  (arrow - arrows)

2. changing letters: ®Ã¿!Š - f£¿IŠ  (donkey - donkeys)

3. changing the short vowels: ¬5�H~ - ¬!�!~  (lion - lions)

or some combination of the above.

See also

Sound Plural


Verbal Nouns

The verbal noun (f¬³¿šZ ) is a basic grammatical concept in Arabic which is similar to the gerund or infinitive in English.  However, it has various functions in Arabic. It is a noun that expresses the abstract action of a verb.  Each verb in Arabic has a verbal noun that denotes the action of the verb in general terms, without reference to time or place.

For example, to express that you perform the act of reading habitually in a time frame specified by the day, you can say:

/wÂ  á˜ ~®–~        I read every day.

On the other hand, to express that you performed the act of reading at that particular time last night, you can say:

/Ô›~ õ…£¥˜ \~®–    I read a book yesterday.

However, to express that you like the act of reading in general, you would use the verbal noun, |YZ®ºšZ  :

/|YZ®ºšZ ÌŠ~        I like reading.

The verbal noun is almost always definite, either with a definite article vZ  or as a first term of Idafa or when attached to a pronoun suffix.

Each verb has its own verbal noun in accordance with its specific pattern.

See also:

Verbs

Derivations: Stems 1 - X


Adjectives

An adjective ( Í5·!œ  ) follows a noun. The adjective ( Í5·!œ  ) and modified noun ( \Â·5À!›  ) should match in gender, number, case, and definiteness.

/Há Â!µšZ HáH‰!®šZ !Y£‰   The tall man came.

/!æ!¾ Â!µšZ !|!~5®!¿šZ HÍ5 !~!f   I saw the tall woman.

See also:

Gender

Case

Relative Adjectives


Relative Adjectives
Relative Adjectives  æ!¤5±HÀšZ

These adjectives are generally formed by adding  N{I   to the end of the noun:

NåIº5²!›Id   -    Ý5²!›Id   (Damascus  Damascene/ from Damascus)

.

The noun may undergo some changes either by addition, omission or change in the diacritic signs.  Nouns with |  at the end will drop it in the relative adjective:

 Nå9¼!›  - æ9¼!›    (Mecca  Meccan/ from Mecca)

For nouns ending in  YZ   for the feminine, the Y   will change to  z  in the relative adjective:

 N{IzZ®5©!� - YZ®5©!�  (desert  related to the desert)

For nouns ending in  YZ   for the masculine, the  Y   may or may not change, and both forms are correct:

N{Iz£ÀI…   	or  NåI¡£ÀI… - Y£ÀI…   (building-related to buildings)

See also:

Nouns and Adjectives


Subject and Predicate

Arabic has two types of sentences: one starts with a noun, and the second starts with a verb. Type one is the equational or nominal sentence.  It starts with a definite noun, noun phrase or pronoun, followed by a predicate which provides information about this noun.

Examples:

  	 	Predicate	Subject

  	 	KáÃ¿‰ 	 	HÔºµšZ   The weather is beautiful.

  	 	KdÂ‰Â› 	 	HÔÃ¡®šZ   The president is present.

Both the subject and the predicate of the nominal sentence are in the nominative case.

The first noun of the nominal sentence is called "starting noun" and functions as the subject. The starting noun must have a predicate in order to form a complete sentence. The difference between the Arabic nominal sentence and an English sentence is that Arabic does not use the equivalent of the verb 'to be' which is used in English.

Thus, a sentence such as 'The man is American' will be translated as:

 />å¼ ®›~ Há‰®šZ   Literally, "The man American." without "is."

Other examples are as follows:

The officer is here.	/£À� HØ…£´šZ

The weather is beautiful.	/KáÃ¿‰ HÔºµšZ

She is smart.	/KæNÃ˜e å�

Mohammed is tall.	/Ká Â‘ K¬9¿©›

The starting noun may be a proper noun, a definite noun, an independent pronoun such asÂ� , å�  , £œ~ , â� , etc. or a demonstrative pronoun such as y­� & Z­� .

The predicate may be one of the following:

An adjective, a noun, or an adverb, which may be followed by modifiers:

Predicate	Subject
KÔÃ¡f	Â�	He is president.
Ká Â‘	HÔÃ¡®šZ	The president is tall.
!t£À�	HÔÃ¡®šZ	The president is there.
IäI¤¥¼› å• Kâ¡£œ	HÜ9’Â¿šZ	The employee is asleep in his office.
Kæ¹Ãµšz Kæ¾Ã¿‰	HÍÀ¤šZ	The girl is pretty and nice.

A prepositional phrase:

I×Ã…ìZ IÍÃ¤šZ å•	HÔÃ¡®šZ	The president is in the White House.
IÍÃ¤šZ å•	å…£¥˜	My book is in the house.

Another nominal sentence with an antecedent pronoun in the predicate:

HYZ®¿Š HäH†f£Ã�	H® ¬¿šZ	The director, his car is red.
K®Ã¦˜ £ÁH›ë˜	H|~®¿šZ y­�	This woman, her speaking is much.
Kæ¤ ®” â�Hf£¼•~	â�	They, their ideas are strange.

See also:

Nouns and Adjectives


Conjugation: Stem I

Conjugation of the verb Ì¥˜

[Strong Verb - Stem 1  Active]

Singular  d!®5¹H›

  	Perfect  	Imperfect  	Subjunctive  	Jussive  	Imperative

He	!ÂH�	!Ì!¥!˜	HÌH¥5¼!	!ÌH¥5¼!	5ÌH¥5¼!
She	!åI�	5Í!¤!¥!˜	HÌH¥5¼!†	!ÌH¥5¼!†	5ÌH¥5¼!†
You M	!Íœ!~	!Í5¤!¥!˜	HÌH¥5¼!†	!ÌH¥5¼!†	5ÌH¥5¼!†	5ÌH¥5˜H~
You F	IÍ5œ!~	IÍ5¤!¥!˜	!ãÃI¤H¥5¼!†	åI¤H¥5¼!†	åI¤H¥5¼!†	å¤H¥5˜H~
I	£!œ!~	HÍ5¤!¥!˜	HÌH¥5˜!~	!ÌH¥5˜!~	5ÌH¥5˜!~

Dual ç9À!¦H›

He D	£¿H�	£¤!¥!˜	Ix£¤H¥5¼!	£¤H¥5¼!	£¤H¥5¼!
She D	£!¿H�	£!¥!¤!¥!˜	Ix£!¤H¥5¼!†	£!¤H¥5¼!†	£!¤H¥5¼!†
You	£!¿H¥5œ!~	£!¿H¥5¤!¥!˜	Ix£!¤H¥5¼!†	£!¤H¥5¼!†	£!¤H¥5¼!†	£!¤H¥5˜H~

Plural  Ú5¿!‰

They M	5âH�	ZÂ¤!¥!˜	!xÂ¤H¥5¼!	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!
They F	9ãH�	!ã5¤!¥!˜	!ã5¤H¥5¼!	!ã5¤H¥5¼!	!ã5¤H¥5¼!
You M	5âH¥5œ!~	5âH¥5¤!¥!˜	!xÂ¤H¥5¼!†	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!†	ZÂ¤H¥5¼!†	ZÂ¤H¥5˜H~
You F	9ãH¥5œ!~	NãH¥5¤!¥!˜	!ã5¤H¥5¼!†	!ã5¤H¥5¼!†	!ã5¤H¥5¼!†	!ã5¤H¥5˜H~
We	Hã5©!œ	£À5¤!¥!˜	HÌH¥5¼!œ	!ÌH¥5¼!œ	5ÌH¥5¼!œ
Active participle	KÌI†£!˜

The pattern of the above verb is one of six subtypes of Form I.  These patterns are:

Perfect  	Imperfect  	Subjunctive  	Jussive

!Ì!¥!˜	HÌH¥5¼!	!ÌH¥5¼!	5ÌH¥5¼!	write
![!®!�	H[I®5´!	![I®5´!	5[I®5´!	hit
!Ñ!¥!•	HÑ!¥5¹!	!Ñ!¥5¹!	5Ñ!¥5¹!	open
!aI®!•	Ha!®5¹!	!a!®5¹!	5a!®5¹!	rejoice
!áHÁ!�	HáHÁ5±!	!áHÁ5±!	5áHÁ5±!	be easy
!ÌI±!Š	HÌI±5©!	!ÌI±5©!	5ÌI±5©!	reckon


Conjugation: Weak Verb

Conjugation of the verb  x£˜

[Weak Verb - Middle (z ) - Stem 1]

Singular	d!®5¹H›

		Perfect	Imperfect	Subjunctive	Jussive	Imperative
He	!ÂH�	!x£!˜	HxÂH¼!	!xÂH¼!	5ãH¼!
She	!åI�	5Í!œ£!˜	HxÂH¼!†	!xÂH¼!†	5ãH¼!†
You M	!Í5œ!~	!Í5ÀH˜	HxÂH¼!†	!xÂH¼!†	5ãH¼!†	5ãH˜
You F	IÍ5œ!~	IÍ5ÀH˜	!ãÃIœÂH¼!†	åIœÂH¼!†	åIœÂH¼!†	åIœÂH˜
I	£!œ!~	HÍ5ÀH˜	HxÂH˜!~	!xÂH˜!~	5ãH˜!~

Dual	ç9À!¦H›

They MD	£!¿H�	£!œ£!˜	x£HœÂH¼!	£!œÂH¼!	£œÂH¼!
They FD	£!¿H�	£!¥!œ£!˜	Ix£!œÂH¼!†	£!œÂH¼!†	£œÂH¼!†
You D	£!¿H¥5œ!~	£!¿H¥5ÀH˜	Ix£!œÂH¼!†	£!œÂH¼!†	£œÂH¼!†	£œÂH˜

Plural	Ú5¿!‰

They M	âH�	ZÂHœ£!˜	!xÂHœÂH¼!	ZÂHœÂH¼!	ZÂHœÂH¼!
They F	9ãH�	9ãH˜	9ãH¼!	9ãH¼!	9ãH¼!
You M	âH¥5œ!~	5âH¥5ÀH˜	!xÂHœÂH¼!†	ZÂHœÂH¼!†	ZÂHœÂH¼!†	ZÂHœÂH˜
You F	9ãH¥5œ!~	9ãH¥5ÀH˜	9ãH¼!†	9ãH¼!†	9ãH¼!†	9ãH˜
We	Hã5©!œ	£9ÀH˜	HxÂH¼!œ	HxÂH¼!œ	5ãH¼!œ

Active Participle:    	KãI¡£!˜


 Alphabet and Pronunciation

The Arabic alphabet consists of 28 letters, all of which are considered to be consonants.  Vowels are designated by diacritic marks above or below the consonants.  These short vowels are generally left out of the written language.

The Arabic script is a cursive one, with the letters joined by ligatures, much like cursive in English handwriting. Arabic is written from right to left.

Modern Standard Arabic is generally written without short vowels, although vowels within words are pronounced.  Vowels and nunation are added to the ends of words to express a variety of grammatical functions.

The chart below gives the letters of the Arabic alphabet, their names, the transliteration key for the Transliterated Survival Phrases, and approximate pronunciations.  The examples given below are meant as a general guide to pronunciation; since many of the sounds of English and Arabic are so different, the audio component of this program should be used to get a more precise feel for the pronunciation of Arabic.

Letter:	Letter  name:	Transliteration symbol:	Approximate pronunciation:
Z	alif	aa	as in mad
[	baa	b	as in boy
\	taa	t	as in tip
]	thaa	th	as in three
_	jiim	j	as in jump
a	Haa	H	as in hi, but heavily aspirated, with friction at back of throat
b	khaa	kh	as in the German ich, with friction at back of tongue
d	daal	d	as in dog
e	dhaal	dh	as in this
f	raa	r	as in the Spanish pero, or gotta said with a tapped t
g	zaay	z	as in zoo
i	siin	s	as in same
j	shiin	sh	as in ship
k	Saad	S	as in sock, but heavier (velar)
l	Daad	D	as in dog, but heavier (velar)
m	Taa	T	as in talk, but heavier (velar)
n	DHaa	DH	as in this, but heavier (velar)
o	äayn	ä	guttural sound, made by constricting air in the throat
p	ghayn	gh	as in the French raison, like a gargle
q	faa	f	as in fame
r	qaaf	q	as in cough, but darker and unaspirated
t	kaaf	k	as in came
v	laam	l	as in line
w	miim	m	as in made
x	nuun	n	as in no
y	haa	h	as in hi
z	waaw	w	as in win
{	yaa	y	as in yes

In addition to the letters of the alphabet listed above, Arabic also has special signs and letters used to indicate short vowels and grammatical constructions, and for other purposes.  In the chart below, a line has been drawn to indicate where the diacritical signs go in relation to the letter.

Sign:	Name:	Transliteration symbol:	Approximate pronunciation:
! Ê	fatHa	a	as in mat or as in met
1 Ê	kasra	i	as in fin
00 Ê	damma	u	as in put
6	shadda	double consonant (ex. dd or ll)	doubles the consonant
2	tanwiin	n	adds n to the end of the word (nunation)
M	sukuun	none	indicates the lack of a vowel
Y	hamza	'	glottal stop; as in eaten (eaen) when said quickly without t
|	taa marbuuTa	a or t	may be pronounced as t prior to a vowel at the end of a word
}	alif maqsura	aa	as is mad, at the end of a word
ò	madda	aa	as in mad, at the beginning of a word

To hear the pronunciation of each letter in a variety of contexts, see the accompanying Arabic Alphabet Reference.

Depending on the context, Arabic letters may take different shapes.

There are six letters that are not joined to the letters following them:

 Z ,  d ,  e , f , g  and z.

When joined to the proceeding letter, they have the following form:

£ , ¬ , ­ , ® , ¯ and Â.

Although at first glance, the shapes of the letters may appear to be very different depending on their positions, most letters have similar forms in all positions.  The following chart shows variations in shape for each letter.  Note how letters with similar independent forms (such as i  and j) have similar changes in the various positions:

Independent  (not connected):	Final  (after connection):	Medial (between connectors):	Initial  (before connector):
[	Ì	¤	…
x	ã	À	œ
\	Í	¥	†
{	å	Ã	ž
]	Î	¦	‡
i	Ô	±	�
j	Õ	²	Ž
k	Ö	³	�
l	×	´	�
m	Ø	µ	m
n	Ù	¶	n
q	Ü	¹	•
r	Ý	º	–

The following letters change their shape a bit more.  Again, note how letters with similar independent forms (such as _ , a and b) have similar patterns:

Independent:	Final:	Medial:	Initial:
_	Ð	¨	‰
a	Ñ	©	Š
b	Ò	ª	‹
o	Ú	·	“
p	Û	¸	”
t	ß	¼	˜
v	á	¾	š
w	â	¿	›
y	ä	Á	�

Special cases:

1.	When Z follows the letter v, it takes on a distinctive shape, somewhat slanted and connected to the v  at the base of the letter:  ê (unconnected) or ë (connected).

2.	The glottal stop, called hamza Y , is considered a fully functioning consonant and has four distinct placements:

a)	standing alone Y

b)	seated on a  è

c)	seated on a þ

d)	seated on an alif ~

See also:

The Article


Introduction

Arabic grammar is extremely complex, and can be baffling even to experts and native speakers. Since each Arab country has its own dialect, Classical Arabic is learned in school, but it is not generally used in daily life. Although Classical Arabic is used in writing and in formal situations throughout the Arab world, the spoken forms of Arabic vary widely.  Of all the spoken dialects, Egyptian Arabic is probably the most widely understood, due to Egypts role as producer of movies and TV programs in the Arab world.  In order for people from different countries with different dialects to communicate effectively, a form of Modern Standard Arabic is used.  The level of grammatical complexity may vary according to the formality of the occasion.

In ArabicNow! all individual words have been recorded in the pausal form of Modern Standard Arabic, that is, without most grammatical case endings.  For the beginning, conversational Titles, sentence segments have also been recorded in the pausal form.  The advanced, more formal Titles have fully vowelled sentence recordings, that is, the case endings are present.

Suggestions for Getting Started

Because Arabic is so different from English in its alphabet, vocabulary and grammar, it presents special challenges to the beginning student.  Here are some suggestions for getting started.

1. Start with the alphabet. Use the Alphabet Reference in conjunction with the Alphabet and Pronunciation page in this Grammar Basics until you are familiar with almost all of the letters of the Arabic alphabet in their various positions.  Arabic writing is an art form; appreciation for the beauty of Arabic will help you learn!

2. While you are working on the alphabet, use Transliterated Arabic Survival Phrases to begin to get a feel for the language and develop some basic vocabulary. Practice your pronunciation with Conversation Practice or Listen and Speak.

3. Once you have some familiarity with the alphabet, begin The Most Common Words in Arabic, which was written with the beginning student in mind.  In this Title, 100 Arabic words are introduced in groups of ten, with simple sentences and dialogues.  At the end of each section the ten new words and additional vocabulary are reviewed again.  Create a vocabulary list of these 100 basic words by using the Check Words feature as you progress through each section.  Simply check each of the Vocabulary words at the end of each section.  To master these words play the different games using just your Checked Words.  Also, sound out each word with the Word Sound available in each Title on CD.

4. To continue to review basic phrases while developing more sophisticated vocabulary, Survival Phrases for Arabic serves as a bridge from beginning to intermediate Arabic.  Practice more formal Arabic with Morocco: A Tale of Two Cities, appropriate for the intermediate student.  Dialogues with Naguib Mafouz and Unified Arab Market Still a Dream provide more formal material from newspapers, ideal for the advanced student.

5. Refer to Grammar Basics (this Help file) for grammatical information about any word in a Title.  With the word in question highlighted, either use the Link button on the Grammar window or click the opposite button on your mouse to jump to a grammar topic in Grammar Basics.  In this Help file you will find concise information highlighting the major points of Arabic grammar.

6. Everyone has his or her own optimal learning style.  Experiment with the many features of Transparent Language to find what works best for you.

7. To learn a foreign language is to learn how another people lives, thinks, and feels.  Enjoy the adventure!


The Root System

Most Arabic verbs and nouns are derived from a three-letter root, consisting of consonants only.  Some words have two- or four-letter roots.

From these roots, words are created by adding letters to the root through a set of patterns. For example, the root Ì¥˜ (k-t-b) embodies the general idea of writing.  The word 00Ì00¥M˜~ (aktubu) means I write, Ì!¥!˜  (katabtu) means I wrote, and Ì!¥M¼!› (maktab) means office (or place of writing).

Many Arabic dictionaries list words under their roots.  For example, to find the meaning of the word Í±Â¥› mutawassit, one would have to look it up under its root: Í±Â (w-s-t).

Roots that undergo further modification include WEAK verbs.  These are roots that have a weak letter (Y, z, or {) as one of the three letters.

Arabic words are additive in nature; many prepositions, pronouns, and conjunctions are actually joined to the words they modify.

Noun	Noun + pronoun	Preposition + Noun +  Pronoun	Conjunction +  Preposition +  Noun +  Pronoun
house	their house	to their house	and to their house
manzal	manzalhuum	limanzalhuum	walimanzalhuum
v¯À›	wzš¯À›	wzš¯À¿š	wzš¯À¿šz
Identifying which parts of an Arabic word are modifiers and which are derived from a root takes practice.  However, once you become familiar with the logic behind Arabic word construction, you have the tools to decipher the general meaning of almost any word.  As you learn new Arabic words, looks for similarities in meaning between words with the same root.


Contents

The following Help Topics are available:

Introduction

Alphabet and Pronunciation

The Root System

The Article

Nouns and Adjectives

Gender

Case

Dual

Plural

Sound Plural

Broken Plural

Verbal Nouns

Adjectives

Relative Adjectives

Adverbs

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Independent Pronouns

Attached Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Numbers

Cardinal Numbers

Ordinal Numbers

Counted Nouns

Fractions

All and Some

Verbs

Indicative Perfect

Indicative Imperfect

Future

Subjunctive

Jussive

Imperative

Strong and Weak Verbs

Tables

Conjugation: Stem I

Derivations: Stems I  X

Conjugation: Weak Verb

Particles

Vocative Particles

Subjunctive Particles

Jussive Particles

Negative Particles

Conjunction Particles

Interrogative Particles

Prepositions

Syntax

Subject and Predicate

Objects

Idafa

Kaana and its Sisters

Inna and its Sisters

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