Copyright: Grammar ®1998 Translation Experts


Table of Contents

  Greek Grammar & Syntax Reference Help

Copyright ©1998 Translation Experts Ltd and Translation Experts USA. All rights reserved.

Introduction

The Greek Language

The Greek Alphabet

Pronunciation

Grammar (main directory)

Syntax (main directory)

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Grammar

Parts of Speech

Rules of Concord

Cases

Declensions

Articles

Nouns

Pronouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Middle Verbs

Adverbs

Prepositions

Numbers

Syntax

Apposition

Cases (use of)

Causal Clauses

Commands

Comparison

Concessive Clauses

Conditional Mood

Conditional Sentences

Consecutive Clauses

Correlatives

Fearing Clauses

Final Clauses

Genitive Absolute

Impersonal Verbs

Indirect Speech

Main Clauses

ΝΑ (the particle)

Numbers

Oratio Obliqua (Indirect Speech)

Parataxis

Participles

ΠΟΥ (Uses of)

Principle Clauses

Prohibitions

Purpose Clauses

Questions

Relative Clauses

Result Clauses

Sentences

Space

ΘΑ (the particle)

Temporal Clauses

Time

Word Order

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  Introduction

This reference help file is meant to be an aide-mιmoire. Its purpose is to provide a broad overview of modern Greek grammar and syntax -- a general reference, not an all encompassing comprehensive guide.

Not all irregularities or variant forms are covered. Explanations of forms of words and constructions are presented in such a way as to make them easier to learn rather than in a philologically rigorous manner. Those requiring greater detail than that offered here should consult a comprehensive Greek grammar.

The inherent complexities of the Greek language have necessitated a somewhat complex help file. If you unfamiliar with navigating through Windows help files, first click the Help command on the menu and, then, on the How to Use Help option from the menu (Windows 3.1x) or click the Start button, then Help and go to the Use Help topic (Windows '95/'98/NT).

Using the Search (Windows 3.1x) or Index or Find (Windows '95/'98/NT) options can help you quickly look up specific topics, points of interest or individual words that correspond to the specific grammatical information you require.

You may print any full-sized help window you open by either clicking the Print button or by first clicking once on the File option and then on Print Topic (Windows 3.1x) or by first clicking the Options button and, then, clicking on the Print Topic... option (Windows '95/'98/NT). If you experience difficulty viewing a topic because some characters are hidden or skewed, use your mouse to either re-Size or Maximize the window.


The Greek Language

  The Greek Language (also see The Greek Alphabet)

	Ancient Greek
	The Common Dialect
	Early Modern Greek
	Modern Greek


 Ancient Greek

The Greek language has a history going back almost four thousand years. The written language is almost three thousand years old.

Greek is the only member of the Hellenic branch of the Indo-European family of languages which includes such diverse languages as Latin, German and Russian.

The first speakers of Greek moved into mainland Greece from the north east about 2,000 BC pushing out or amalgamating with the pre-Greek population who gave to the Greek language such words as Κόρινθoς and θάλασσα. The first flowering of Greek civilization occurred during the Mycenean period -- from the beginning of the 16th century BC to the end of the 12th century BC.

The complex palace structure (which was central to the bureaucracy) made use of a syllabic script known as Linear B to write the language. With the collapse of the Mycenean civilization went the loss of the written form of the language and Greece entered a dark age when writing was all but forgotten.

The fall of Mycenae is associated with the coming of the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people from the same origins as the original Greek migrants. The almost thousand year gap between the two migrations allowed sufficient time for the two forms of the language to differ so that the new arrivals brought with them a form of Greek known as Doric.

By the time writing was "rediscovered", there were a number of spoken dialects in use throughout the Greek world. There were four main groups:

 the Attic-Ionic group spoken in Attica, some islands and the Greeks on the coast of Asia Minor

 the Aeolic used on Lesbos and coast of Asia Minor opposite it and in Thessaly and Boeotia

 the Arcado-Cyprian group used in Cyprus and Arcadia in the Peloponnese

 the West Greek group made up of Doric spoken in much of the Peloponnese Northwest Greece.

During the Mycenean and subsequent period a form of poetry was produced celebrating the exploits of famous warriors. This oral poetry, produced for a non-literate society, had a tradition that was to last many generations and culminate in the great epics of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the first great works of European literature. The poems were composed in dactylic hexameters using a literary language which was never spoken at any time but was the result of generations of development and additions building up the poems from a stock of set phrases capable of covering most situations. The main elements of the dialect are Ionic and Aeolic with some Attic due to the fact that the poems were probably written down for the first time in Athens towards the end of the 6th century BC.

The epics of Homer marked the end of the oral period and the beginning of the period of written literature because their composition may have coincided with the adoption of an alphabetic system of writing in the middle of the 8th century BC. This system was based on the Phoenician alphabet and was adapted by different Greek communities at the same time resulting in a number of variations. One of the versions was taken by Greek migrants to Italy and was conveyed to the Romans via the Etruscans, ultimately becoming the English alphabet. In the early period of writing there were a number of versions of the alphabet used by different Greek states.

Hesiod was another poet of epics but one who worked firmly in the literary tradition. Other epic poets flourished but none matched the quality of Homer and Hesiod. The genre of the epic seems to have been the earliest form of literature but in the 7th century another type of poetry developed which was more personal and related to contemporary issues. Archilochus of Paros was the first poet to speak in his own voice and his poetry was far more intimate. Written in iambic meter, it resembled the rhythms of the spoken language more closely than did the hexameters of Homer. Other poets who worked in this style were the Spartan Tyrtaeus, Theognis of Megara and Solon of Athens who is most closely connected with the birth of democracy.

At about the same time, a form of poetry composed to be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre was being developed, lyric poetry. Lyric poetry of a personal nature was first written in the Aeolic dialect and developed on the island of Lesbos by Terpander. It was brought to its greatest height in the 7th century by Alcaeus and Sappho, the latter being one of the very few women poets of the ancient world.

Also in the 7th century lyric poetry written for groups of singers (choruses) at religious festivals was being composed. Since many of the original writers wrote in the Doric dialect this became the standard dialect for such poetry. The choral lyric was brought to its peak in the 5th century by Pindar many of whose poems celebrated victors in the great national games such as the Olympic Games.

Choral lyrics were intimately associated with the origins of drama. When one of the chorus stepped out from the group and sang solo, drama was born. In the late 6th century, the Athenian dramatist Aeschylus added a second actor and developed the form of tragedy which we recognize as drama today. Aeschylus was the first in a trio of great tragedians spanning the whole of the 5th century. The other two, Sophocles and Euripides, brought Greek tragedy to its pinnacle with works such a Oedipus the King and Medea which are still performed today. Comic drama had similar origins and one of its greatest exponents was the Athenian poet Aristophanes. The great dramatists of the 5th century were Athenians and so the language of drama was traditionally the language of the Athenians.

Naturally, verse was not the only form of Greek literature but it was the first because verse is easier to commit to memory in a non-literate society. Even with the introduction of writing, literature continued to be composed in verse. The tradition of working in verse was so strong that even the speculations of the first philosophers were presented as poems. The earliest known philosopher was Thales of Miletus who lived in the early part of the 6th century. He and other Ionian philosophers composed their philosophical speculations in their native Ionic dialect and this became the standard for most philosophical writing. Other notable philosophers who wrote in verse were Pythagoras and Heraclitus.

Ionian and other dialects held sway in the writing of philosophy, even when prose was developed as a means of literary composition in the 6th century. It was not until the Athenian Plato (at the start of the 4th century) that Attic Greek became the standard vehicle for philosophical speculation. The exquisite prose style of Plato is considered by many to be the acme of perfection of the Greek language. Plato and his equally influential pupil Aristotle were the founders of the western philosophy and science tradition.

Another genre of literature which made use of prose rather than verse was history. Herodotus, described by Cicero as the Father of History, is considered to be the first historian in the modern sense of the word. He wrote his history of the wars with Persia in his native Ionic dialect. However, again, Attic Greek became the standard for historical writing at the end of the 5th century when the Athenian Thucydides published his History of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. During a ten year period of exile, Thucydides was absent from Athens when the Sicilian Gorgias and other writers had an important influence in the development of the Attic dialect. The Attic of Thucydides is therefore old-fashioned compared with the more developed dialect which the Athenians of the 4th century inherited. One of these Athenians was Demosthenes, generally thought of as the greatest orator of the ancient world. He and other Athenian orators of the 4th century such as Lysias and Isocrates made Attic Greek the standard for all rhetorical writing.

The Attic Greek of writers like Plato and Demosthenes is thought by many to represent the peak of the language becuase of its beauty, flexibility and structure. The grammar and syntax were at their most developed and complex and the vocabulary had a purity and richness which has not been surpassed. The language was spoken using an accentual system based on pitch so that it had a musical quality which stress-accented languages do not have.


 The Common Dialect

The Greek used in the 4th century throughout the Greek-speaking world as the common language of political dialogue was basically Attic which had become the lingua franca because of the great influence of the prestigious Athenian writers of the 5th and 4th centuries and the political power wielded by Athens.

Attic was affected by various other dialects, especially Ionian, as non-Athenians used it as a means of interstate communication. In the middle of the century, Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, adopted this form of Attic as the official language of administration and diplomacy for Macedonia.

With the conquests of Alexander, the Greek language followed to all the parts of the known world. This form of Attic was called Koine by grammarians because it was the common dialect of the Greek world. It gradually began to overtake the local Greek dialects as the official state language and would be the direct ancestor of Modern Greek. It was the language in which the New Testament was written. The importance of the conservative orthodox church throughout the later history of the Greek world helped to preserve Koine as the official literary language. Although there were many local variations in usage and pronunciation, there was a remarkable degree of uniformity in the use of Koine. Although formal literature continued to be written during the Hellenistic Period by such authors as Callimachus and Theocritus, the history of the development of the Greek language is fundamentally that of the Koine dialect.

In about 200 BC, the grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium developed a system of written accents to help foreigners learn to pronounce Greek. This system remained in use until the 20th century. Over the next few centuries the pronunciation of Greek evolved into the form which became, more or less, the form it still has today. The vowel system became simplified, with eventually, no distinction being made between long and short vowels and the diphthongs degenerated into monophthongs. Many of these changes started in the 4th century BC and most were complete by the end of the 4th century AD when the original tonal accent had become a stress accent.

By the 2nd century AD the consonants had by and large evolved into their present form. During the same period, many simplifications and the elimination of irregularities in grammar and syntax took place such as the replacement of the future endings with periphrastic expressions. Vocabulary also underwent a significant change during this period with many adaptations and formations from, in particular, Latin.

Although the Koine dialect had an underlying homogeneity, there remained two forms of the language, the literary form used throughout the Greek-speaking world by the educated classes and the form used by the masses with their own local grammatical and vocabulary variations. This dichotomy between the literary language and the vernacular is a fairly universal linguistic phenomenon but it was to be overshadowed by another, more significant one.

Towards the end of the 1st century BC there was a reaction against the use of Koine as the standard form of Greek by a group of scholars who believed that all change was change for the worse. They believed that Greeks should speak the pure Attic dialect perfected by the likes of Plato and Demosthenes three centuries before. These scholars and writers, known as Atticists, had a growing influence on the teaching and writing of Greek for the next two centuries and helped create the polarization of the official, literary language and the vernacular used by the masses. This was the beginning of the diglossy which came to dominate the future development of the language until recent times.

Among the leading Atticists of the 1st century AD were Lucian (the author of the first work of science fiction and an outstanding exponent of pure Atticism) and Plutarch who wrote biographies of many of the great Greek and Roman figures of the past in Attic Greek with many concessions to the literary Koine of his day. The "Atticizing" movement was doomed to failure since it was difficult to sustain and only used by those of the most profound learning, however, its influence was immense.

Although the New Testament was written mainly in the spoken Koine of the day, the later Church Fathers such as Chrysostom adopted a form of the "Atticized" dialect in their commentaries on the Gospels. It was due to the linguistic preferences of such influential writers as Chrysostom that the "Atticized" dialect became regarded as the model of pure, educated Greek and remained so for the next millennium. This artificial dialect was what was taught in the schools and used by the state and church. At home and in the villages, the people continued to speak their own vernacular form of Koine which departed further and further from the impossible ideal of the Atticists.


 Early Modern Greek

In 324 AD, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved from Rome to Constantinople on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium. Although the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, its inhabitants were mostly Greek and, eventually, it developed into what is now called the Byzantine Empire, a Greek empire which would profoundly effect the subsequent history of the Greek world.

The 6th and 7th centuries were times of great upheaval in the Byzantine world. In the early 6th century, Slavic invaders penetrated mainland Greece as far as the Peloponnese and, in the 7th century, large areas of territory in the east were lost to the Arabs. These events caused great movements of population and many cities that had been important in the past sank into obscurity or disappeared altogether.

These upheavals must have had a profound effect on the spoken language over the next few centuries but evidence is limited because most of the surviving texts of this era were ecclesiastic and were written in the literary Koine.

It was during this period that certain changes in pronunciation and morphology began or were completed which brought the language closer to what it is today. The vowel system was reduced to five distinct sounds, double consonants were pronounced as one, the final -ν was dropped except before vowels, initial vowels occurring before a stressed syllable were dropped (bringing about the development of the enclitic pronouns and the disappearance of the unstressed temporal argument), the dative case was finally discarded except for certain stock phrases, noun declensions were further reorganized and rationalized and the periphrastic perfect was established. Although the vocabulary was enriched by numerous words adopted from Slavic and Arabic languages, the main source for new words was Latin. By about 1100 AD, Modern Greek had begun to take on its final form.

During the course of the following three centuries there were major influences on the language largely due to the arrival of the Seljuk Turks on the borders of Byzantium and later by the Ottoman Turks who captured Constantinople in 1453. During this period the empire was steadily reduced and fragmented. The arrival of the Crusaders from the west, particularly the Venetians, brought further profound influences, not only on the language but also on culture and politics.

During this period many new words of Italian, French and Spanish origin were introduced into the language. Because the Byzantine administration and educational system collapsed in many areas, the literary language lost a great deal of prestige and the vernacular dialects began, in many cases, to be used for administration and literature. Whereas the great epic Digenis Akritas (10th century) was written in the literary language, the poems of Michael Glykas and Theodore Prodromos were largely written in the vernacular.

The Chronicle of Morea, written in almost pure vernacular, was produced around 1300. During this time, Greek evolved closer into its present form. The declension system was further rationalized with neuter forms in -ι being introduced, synizesis of -ι- and -ε- with a following vowel took place in many words, the future tense formed with periphrases using θέλω predominated others, differences in tense became confined to the indicative with other forms differing only in aspect, all prepositions started to be followed by the accusative and the local distinctions of the spoken language began a process of development into the later local dialects.

In 1453, with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, the spiritual and cultural center of the Greek speaking world was in bondage. Although serious literature was still written in the purist Greek, the diaspora from the Turkish dominated regions of Byzantium (and the resulting spread of Greek vernacular to more distant regions beyond the control of the Turks) was far from conducive to the development of a uniform spoken language. Many Greeks avoided Turkish control by escaping to the mountains and, as a result, regional dialects flourished and a number of local dialects developed their own local vernacular literature. Folk songs of resistance composed during this time (the klephtic ballads) and written in the vernacular, survived into the 19th century.

While not affecting the Klephts, the spread of Turkish rule brought an end to other important literary developments in different parts of the Greek world. The literary movements in the Dodecanese collapsed when the islands fell to the Turks in 1552. Similarly, in Cyprus, the developing literature in the local dialect came to an end in 1571 when the island was brought under Turkish rule.

During this period, Crete became an important center where local writers composed in the Cretan dialect. A local school of drama flourished there under writers like Kornaros who brought Cretan literature to its pinnacle with his romantic poem Erotokritos. This golden age of Cretan writing was halted when the island was captured in 1669.

The longest lasting tradition of vernacular literature was centered in the Ionian islands which had strong links with the Venetians. This tradition was further enriched when numerous Cretans fled to the islands after the fall of Crete. Although this literary tradition flourished among the ordinary country folk rather than the westernized elite, it was to this vernacular tradition that the great nationalist Solomos turned in the 19th century when he was looking for a basis for creating a new national vernacular. Despite the upheavals of the time, there were few changes to the language: the declensions were further regularized and exceptions rooted out, the future began to be formed with θα plus the subjunctive, the periphrastic perfects became more firmly established and refugees from the Turks brought with them words from Turkish.


 Modern Greek

As the 18th century drew to a close, the Greeks who had endured under the Turkish yoke for centuries -- many of who had been driven from what had been their homeland for millennia -- were inspired by the national revolutions of Europe and the increasing interest in Greece's past to think that Greece might again one day be free.

The intellectuals and writers who dreamt of this new beginning also saw the need for a national language to unite the dispersed Greek speakers. But which form of the language would serve such a unifying purpose? Should it be the formal literary Greek which scholars such as A. Korais advocated or should it be based on the speech of the people who would be called upon to rise up and free themselves? This was the origin of the Language Question which has dogged the development of Greek to the present day.

Although there was a basic polarity between those who wanted the national language to be based on the formal Greek of the Byzantine court and those who wanted it to be based on the vernacular, there were others who sought to create a national language as artificial as the dialect of Homer had been.

When Greece gained independence in 1821 and Athens became the capital of the new state in 1833, a new common dialect was developed. It was based on that of the people of the Peloponnese because of their significant contributions to the war of liberation. However, the ruling elite was against the new vernacular. Most of the administration were conservatives who had been brought up using the formal language. Their stance was that the formal language was the only proper vehicle for educated discourse and that their positions would be undermined by using the vernacular as the national language.

They proceeded to cleanse the language of what they considered impurities and foreign adaptations and, in doing so, created an artificial vernacular which no one had ever spoken. It was an incongruous mixture of spoken Greek and artificial forms derived from the ancient language. This artificial tongue became known as Katharevousa, the official language of state, education and culture and differed greatly from the Demotic language spoken by the common people in their homes and villages. As a consequence, yet another form of diglossy developed whose partisans defended their position with passion and which started a debate which was not resolved for another century.

Katharevousa was doomed from the start. It was too artificial and required too much knowledge of ancient Greek for there to be any uniformity of usage. Everyone had their own ideas and few could agree what was correct and what was not. Meanwhile, most people reverted to the Demotic or even their own local dialect when they were not publicly parading their proficiency in Katharevousa.

At the end of the 19th century, the Paris-based linguist Jean Psichari argued against the use of Katharevousa and proposed a systematized form of Demotic as the national language. His novel My Journey, published in 1888, was the first major work of literature produced in the new Demotic. Despite its often hostile reception, Demotic soon became the preferred language of literature. Of course, the state continued to use Katharevousa. But things were not so clear cut. While writers like Valaoritis wrote in Demotic, the internationally renowned Kavafy wrote using a complex amalgam of Demotic and Katharevousa and the equally famous Kazantzakis, author of Alexis Zorbas, wrote in a form of his own Cretan dialect. Things were confusing to say the least.

In 1917, Demotic was made the language of instruction in the lower schools and for the next few generations (depending on the political color of the government) the pendulum swung between Demotic and Katharevousa as the official state language. In 1963, the Nobel Prize for literature was awarded to George Seferis for his rich and symbolic poetry.

When the conservative military junta took control of Greece in 1967 they proclaimed Katharevousa as the national language. This compulsory imposition of the artificial Katharevousa by a right-wing government signaled its death knoll. In 1976, a few years after the collapse of the junta, the new republican government proclaimed Demotic the official state language.

The formal abandonment of Katharevousa also signaled the final rejection of the system of accents devised by Aristophanes of Byzantium in favor of a monotonic system which better reflects the realities of the spoken language. Although there were still diehard defenders of Katharevousa, the vernacular Demotic remains the national language of Greece to this day. In 1979, another Greek poet, Odysseas Elytis, was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature.

Although state-sponsored grammars have been published, the language remains in a state of flux. The new diaspora of Greek speakers throughout the world which has taken place during the 20th century has meant that new regional variations in Demotic are constantly developing. However, regardless of the state of the vernacular, Greek basically remains the same language used by Plato and Alexander the Great.


The Indo-European languages are thought to have evolved out of a common language spoken by a people originating in eastern Europe around 3,000 BC who were to eventually spread over most of Europe and into the Indian subcontinent. As these migrants developed differently, so too did their dialects evolved into different languages. These languages are also sometimes called Indo-Germanic.


The Mycenean civilization was so named because its main center was at Myceneae in the Peloponnese. One of the Mycenean kings was Agamemnon who led the Greeks against Troy.


Hellenic

It's not known why the Greeks came to call themselves Hellenes and their language Hellenika. The original Hellenes were a small, insignificant Greek state in the center of Greece. In the epics of Homer (the first extant Greek literature), the Greeks are variously called Dorians, Danaans and Achaeans. By the historic period the name of the small Hellenes community had somehow become the cognomen for all the Greeks.


Linear B

Until the middle of the 20th century it was thought by most people that the Greek language was introduced into Greece about the beginning of the first millennium BC. But the remarkable decipherment of Linear B in 1952 by Michael Ventris showed that, in fact, the Myceneans themselves spoke an early form of Greek.


A Syllabic script is one in which each symbol represents a syllable rather than a single sound as letters of an alphabet normally tend to do, for example, there would be different symbols for the syllables -ba, -bo, -be and -bu. In an alphabetic script there would be different symbols for -b, -a, -o, -e, and -u.


Oral Poetry is the norm in non-literate cultures and is often composed extemporaneously in a variety of situations but its main themes are usually the heroic deeds of historic and contemporary warriors. In order for the poet or bard to be able to extemporaneously compose complex poems, the verses were made up from a huge repertoire of "stock" phrases, lines and passages which were combined and recombined to cover most common themes.


The true identity of Homer is a puzzling question. Some scholars even doubt that any single individual, much less one named Homer, was responsible for the composition of the Iliad and Odyssey. Most believe, however, that he was the last in a long line of bards who created, reworked and passed down poems over several generations. Coinciding as it may have with the reintroduction of writing, Homer's reworking of the epics was so brilliant that no one thought his versions could be improved upon.


The Phoenicians were an important and influential seafaring mercantile nation. Based in the region of what is now northwest Syria, they dominated trade in the Mediterranean for much of the first millennium BC.


The Etruscans were a loose confederation of peoples who inhabited the area north of Rome (modern Tuscany). Their origins are still disputed and their language is still largely undeciphered.


The rhythm or meter of Greek verse was based on the length of syllables rather than stress, for example, more like the rhythm of Morse code than a drum beat.

dactylic hexameter -- six units with each unit (or foot) consisting of the basic rhythm -- the traditional meter of epic poetry:

Iambic trimeter -- a rhythm which comes closer to ordinary speech and is made up of three units of two iambic feet:

Variety is introduced by replacing the basic feet with other rhythms.


The lyre was a type of ancient harp. As used in classical times in Athens, it was often constructed of a tortoise shell sound compartment with skin stretched over the opening. Two bars extended from the shell and a crossbar was attached at the far end providing a platform for stretching the strings.

Relative to other Greek instruments of the time, the lyre was small, light and versatile and could be played sitting, standing or walking. It was played by both men and women, although is most often depicted in art being played by a man. The lyre was used more frequently by younger Greek musicians and, according to Homer, was most commonly used by the aristocratic warrior society who were associated with the cult of Apollo.

The lyre was played in a similar manner to way in which a guitar is played. The strings could be plucked (a technique called psallein) with a plectrum (essentially a guitar pick) or played with bare fingers (a technique called psalteria). The left hand would pluck the strings (usually with each syllable being sung) and the right hand would sweep over the strings with the plectrum only when there was no singing. The singer and the lyrics were paramount to the music and the sound of the instrument was never allowed to distract from the all-important vocal.


 The Origins of Drama

We don't know for sure how drama originated. Following the account given by Aristotle in his Poetics, it is most likely to have had its beginnings in the choral songs sung at the festivals in honor of the god Dionysus. When one of the singers in the chorus took on the persona of the god Dionysus or other character and responded to what the chorus was singing, the first actor was born.


Pythagoras, originally from the island of Samos but later based in the south of Italy, was the founder of a school of philosophy and religious brotherhood. As well as being renowned for his theorem, he taught, among many other things, that number was the basis of the universe.

Heraclitus believed that the universe was in a ceaseless state of flux and motion -- nothing ever stays the same -- hence his adage, "you cannot step into the same river twice".


Cicero was an influential Roman politician of the 1st century BC. His voluminous prose on a variety of subjects are considered to have taken Latin to its highest level of perfection. He unsuccessfully tried to bring political harmony to Rome in the time of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.


The accent of Ancient Greek was based on musical pitch rather than stress. There were three accents:

 the acute indicated a rise in pitch by about a musical fifth

 the grave indicated a fall in pitch

 the circumflex indicated a rise followed by a fall in pitch

While no one can know for sure what the ancient language actually sounded like, the resulting changes in pitch combined with natural word stress, must have given spoken Greek an almost musical quality. This system was gradually replaced by one based solely on stress. This process was probably complete by the end of the 4th century AD.


A lingua franca is a language that is used as a means of communication by people who do not themselves normally speak that language. The expression was used to describe the mixture of French, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Turkish and Arabic that was used as a common language across the Mediterranean from the 12th to the 18th century. For many centuries, Latin was the lingua franca of science and culture in the West.


Koine or the Common Dialect (Κοινή Διάλεκτος) was used because it was common to all those who spoke Greek.


The Hellenistic Period is the name given to the three hundred year period of Greek history from the death of Alexander in 323 BC. Alexandria in Egypt, one of the many cities named Alexandria founded by Alexander, was the center of culture and commerce during this period and Greek culture spread throughout the Mediterranean and the Near East.


A Diphthong is a gliding vowel sound that is made up of two elements like in the words cow and high.

A Monophthong is a simple, non-gliding vowel sound like in the word it.


A Periphrastic Expression is one which is made up of several words or auxiliaries instead of a single word, for example, very beautiful as opposed to prettiest.

In Classical Greek, the future was expressed by a change of inflection as in γράψω (I will write) but, in the Modern Greek, the future is constructed with the auxiliary particle θα + the subjunctive as in θα γράψω. Although the two words γράψω are spelled the same, they are actually different forms of the verb.

In Classical Greek, the perfect tense was expressed by a change of inflection as in γέγραφα (I have written) but, in Modern Greek, the perfect is constructed with an auxiliary verb + the indefinite as in έχω γράψει.


Diglossy is the use (within the same community) of two languages or dialects that are used for different purposes and have a different prestige.


The Church Fathers were early theologians who wrote commentaries on the Gospels.


An Enclitic word is one which "leans" (κλίνει) on (εν) the word in front of it and loses its accent to it. The weak forms of the personal pronouns τον‚ το‚ μου, etc., are enclitic and "lean upon" the words in front and sometimes give them an extra accent. The enclitic is pronounced as part of the preceding word:

σπίτι μου	(SPEET-ee-moo)
πες μου το	(PEZ-moo-toh)
πράγματά μου	(PRAGH-mah-TAH-mou)
A Proclitic is a word which is so closely joined in sense and grammar to the following word that it loses its stress and is pronounced as part of the other word. Such words are the definite article, prepositions and some conjunctions:

το σπίτι μου	(toh-SPEET-ee-mou)
τα πράγματά μου	(tah-PRAGH-mah-TAH-mou)
τον ακούω	(ton-ah-KOO-oh)


The Dative was a form of the noun which indicated, among other things, the indirect object and was used after many prepositions. It has only survived in expressions such as πράγματι (in fact) and Δόξα τω Θεω (Glory to God).


The Temporal Augment is the extra vowel added to a verb to indicate certain past tenses. It is used in Modern Greek when (most) two syllable verbs are put into the past tenses, for example, βλέπω (I look) and έβλεπα (I was looking).


The Seljuk Turks were a Turkish people from the far East who were converted to Islam in the 7th century AD. As they advanced west (1055-1243), they built up an empire based on a loose confederation of tribes whose center was in Iran but whose territory encompassed Iraq and most of Syria and Anatolia.


The Ottoman Turks

Osman the First started out as a soldier in the army of the Seljuk Turks but in 1299 set up his own kingdom in northwest Asia and eventually founded his own empire (Ottoman) which lasted until it was dissolved in 1922 by Ataturk.


Synizesis is the process whereby two vowels originally belonging to separate syllables are contracted into a single syllable, for example, in the word λευτεριά the -ι- is contracted with the -α to form a single syllable ya.


A Diaspora is a spreading of people of the same language and culture from their original homeland to other areas because of economic, military or political conditions. The word is often used without qualification to refer to the Jewish Diaspora.


Klepht (from κλέφτης = thief/robber) was the name given to those Greeks who fled to the mountains after the Turkish conquest of Greece. Their descendants survived as brigands into the 19th century and had a long tradition of songs of resistance composed in their spoken dialects.


Geographical Regions Of Greece

Central Greece -- the area north of the Corinth canal, including the city of Athens

Crete -- the large island between mainland Greece and the north coast of Africa

Cyclades -- the group of islands in the central Aegean centered around Delos

Dodecanese -- the "twelve islands" including Rhodes off the southwest coast of Turkey

Epirus -- northwest Greece bordering on Albania

Ionian Islands -- the group of islands including Corfu off the west coast

Macedonia -- north Greece bordering on Bulgaria and the Former Yugoslavia

Northeast Islands -- the group of islands including Lesbos off the northwest coast of Turkey

Peloponnese -- the large peninsula connected to Central Greece by the narrow isthmus

Sporades -- the group of islands off the coast of Thessaly

Thessaly -- north central Greece

Thrace -- northeast Greece bordering on Turkey

In addition to these large regions, there are several smaller administrative regions known as nomes (νομοί):

Arcadia  a region in the Peloponnese

Attica -- the region around Athens

Boeotia  the region to the north of Athens

In ancient times Asia Minor (the west coast of modern Turkey) was also part of the Greek world as it was until early in this century.


Solomos

The island of Zakynthus produced many prominent writers but the most renowned was Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857). He played a part in the struggle for independence from Turkey and wrote, among many other works, the Hymn to Liberty which was later adopted as the Greek national anthem.


The Language Question

Whether to adopt one version of the same language or another as the national language is perhaps unique in cultural history. Unlike similar questions in other countries (e.g. Belgium and Canada) where the conflict is between different languages spoken by inhabitants of different ethnic origins, the Greek language question is one which has divided ethnic Greeks since the beginning of the 18th century.


Katharevousa

Καθαρεύουσα ("purified" or rather "purifying") is the refined form of the spoken dialect based on the Peloponnesian dialect. Foreign influences were removed and their place was taken by older Greek forms. Consequently, the dialect had many forms found in Koine but not in ordinary spoken Greek.

Demotic

Δημοτική ("popular" from δήμος = people) is the ordinary spoken dialect based on the Peloponnesian dialect without any attempt to cleanse it of foreign adaptations. It is the form of Greek which most Greeks would use everyday. Advocates of Katharevousa called the systematized Demotic Μαλλιαρή (hairy). Demotic is the official language of Greece today.

There were other varieties of Modern Greek which did not have the status of Katharevousa or Demotic but which were used by many people: Μικτή ("mixed") was a less extreme form of Katharevousa and is what most people used when they tried to use the Katharevousa. Καθομιλουμένη ("spoken") was basically Demotic influenced by Katharevousa.


Kavafy

Constantine P. Kavafis was born in Alexandria, Egypt in 1863 of parents from Constantinopole. As a boy, he spent many years in England and his poetry was greatly influenced by his knowledge of the English poetic tradition as well as the poverty of his early life in Alexandria.

In Alexandria he worked in the Ministry of Public Works but spent much of his time writing poetry. Although he became internationally renowned as a poet, he was not recognized in Greece until late in his career. His poetry is very sensitive to the long history of Greece and is full of literary and historical references.


Seferis was the pen name of the poet Georgios Seferiades (1900-1971). Born in Smyrna, Turkey, he was also a diplomat and served as ambassador to Lebanon and Great Britain. His poetry was greatly influenced by the ancient world and, although clear and lucid, it is also noted for its symbolism and surrealism.


Nikos Kazantzakis (1885-1957) was born in Heraklion, Crete. He traveled extensively throughout the world and his travel books draw heavily on his experiences. As well as being a novelist, he translated some of the Classics into Modern Greek, published works of philosophy and wrote poetry. Two of his novels, Zorba and The Last Temptation of Christ, were made into motion pictures. He is possibly the best known Greek author outside Greece.


Elytis was the pseudonym of Odysseas Alepoudelis. His poetry is extremely symbolic and surreal. Some of his works have been set to music by Mikis Theodorakis. His best known work is Το `Αξιον Εστί.


  The Greek Alphabet

(also see The Greek Language, Pronunciation and/or Punctuation)

Although the Greeks had a system of writing before the first millennium BC, this was lost when the Mycenean civilization collapsed (see the Greek Language). Sometime during the 8th century BC (or even earlier), the Greeks, through their trade contacts, adopted the system of writing used by the Phoenicians and adapted it to the needs of their own language. At first, different Greek communities used different versions of the alphabet.

When the Greeks expanded into Sicily and Italy (sometime during the 8th century BC), they took their newly adopted and adapted alphabet and system of writing with them. It was the version used by the colonists from Chalkis in Euboea that was passed on to the Romans via the Etruscans.

At first, only uppercase letters were used in inscriptions and papyrus documents but the need to form letters more easily and quickly led to more rounded forms of the letters and eventually the development of lowercase letters. By about 800 AD the scholars in Constantinople had developed a form of lowercase letters upon which the lowercase letters used today are based.

For pronunciation, see the Pronunciation Guide, for accents, see the Monotonic System.

Uppercase	Lowercase	Name
Α	α	άλφα
Β	β	βήτα
Γ	γ	γάμμα
Δ	δ	δέλτα
Ε	ε	έψιλον
Ζ	ζ	ζήτα
Η	η	ήτα
Θ	θ	θήτα
Ι	ι	γιώτα
Κ	κ	κάππα‚ κάπα
Λ	λ	λάμβδα‚ λάμδα
Μ	μ	μυ
Ν	ν	νυ
Ξ	ξ	ξι
Ο	ο	όμικρον
Ρ	ρ	ρω‚ ρο
Σ	σ‚ ς	σίγμα
Τ	τ	ταυ
Υ	υ	ύψιλον
Φ	φ	φι
Χ	χ	χι
Ψ	ψ	ψι
Ω	ω	ωμέγα


The word alphabet is derived from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet -- άλφα-��βήτα.


Different Versions of the Alphabet

The Greeks were far from being a unified nation in the 8th century BC when the first alphabet was introduced. Each community was an independent state or the subject of another Greek state. One state may have introduced the alphabet and then passed it on to others or several city states may have simultaneously developed the same idea.

However it happened, there was little impetus for each individual state to adopt the Phoenician symbols in exactly the same way. Some symbols were not used by some states while others were used in different ways. What all the states did seem to adopt, however, were the letters Α, Ε, Ι and Ο as vowel sounds (absent in the Phoenician alphabet) and adding the double consonants Φ, Χ and Ψ and the vowel Ω (an Ionian invention).

The shape of the letters changed -- for example, sigma from a three bar symbol to a four bar symbol -- but, by the 4th century BC, a standard alphabet had been adopted by all the states and is the one still used today.


There are two forms of the lowercase sigma:

σ is used at the beginning or in the middle of a word as in σήμερα‚ θάλασσα.

ς (final sigma) is only used at the end of a word as in μαύρος or νεαρός.

The normal sound of σ is like the s in see:

σαλάτα	(sah-LAH-tah)
τρείς	(TREECE)

When it is in front of the letters β‚ γ‚ δ‚ ζ‚ λ‚ μ‚ ν and ρ, it sounds like the z in zoo:

σβήνω	(ZVEE-noh)
κόσμος	(KOZ-moss)
σγουρός	(zghoo-ROSS)

Both forms of the lowercase sigma have the same origin -- the so-called lunate (moon-like) sigma which looked somewhat like a C. The final sigma had the end of the letter turned around to form a tail, whereas the other sigma had the tail twisted further round to close the letter.


Omicron & Omega

Although both letters are pronounced the same in Modern Greek, their names reveal that at one time there was a difference between them:

ό - �μικρον	small o
ω - μέγα	big O


Punctuation

  Punctuation (also see The Greek Alphabet and/or Pronunciation)

Some punctuation marks used in Greek are the same as English, for example:

.	= period (full stop)
,	= comma
!	= exclamation mark

But the following Greek punctuation marks have a different meaning:

;	= question mark
	= semicolon (a period raised above the line)
« »	= double angle brackets used for direct speech or quotations
	= the dash is also used to introduce direct speech


The Montonic System

  The Monotonic System

(also see The Greek Alphabet and/or Pronunciation)

For almost two thousand years written Greek used a system of accents devised to help teach ancient Greek to foreigners (see The Greek Language). This polytonic system of three different accents and two breathings was retained for the spelling of words even when the three accents had the same value and the breathings had no influence on pronunciation.

Over the years, many proposed replacing this redundant polytonic system with one which reflected the realities of the language. In 1982, a few years after Demotic was made the official national language, a monotonic system of accentuation was officially introduced.

The monotonic system has only one accent -- an acute. When discussing the use of accents it is useful to know three technical terms: oxytone, paroxytone and proparoxytone. The rules for the accents are:

1 Words with more than one syllable are written with the accent over the stressed vowel: άνθρωπος‚ μητέρα‚ τώρα. If the stressed vowel occurs in the αυ‚ ευ or ου combinations, then, it is placed over the second element: αύριο‚ δουλεύω‚ μούτρα.

Note: Although γιατί (why) follows the rule, the word γιατι (because) does not. The accent is not usually found further back than the third last syllable.

2 Words with only one syllable do not have an accent. However, to avoid ambiguity, some monosyllabic words contain an accent, for example, ή (or), but η (the)‚ πού (where) and πώς (how). A proclitic pronoun is given an accent to avoid confusion with an enclitic pronoun:

Η δασκάλα μάς είπε = The teacher said to us.

Η δασκάλα μας είπε = Our teacher said.

As words are inflected, the accent often changes position. This phenomenon is inherited from the ancient language and although students of Classical Greek can learn a set of rules (and their exceptions) governing these changes, the student of Modern Greek is best advised to learn the changes as they are encountered. In the case of adjectives, the accent does not change position:

άνθρωπος	ανθρώπου
λύνω	έλυσα
πηγαίνω	πήγαινα

But note the adjective:

άσχημος	άσχημου

If a word with the accent on the third last syllable is followed by an enclitic pronoun, then, the accent of the enclitic is transferred to the last syllable of the preceding word (which gives it two stressed syllables) with the greater emphasis given to the stress of the final syllable. The two words are pronounced as a single unit:

τα πράγματά μου	(tah PRG-ma-TAH-mou)


A word is Oxytone if its accent falls on the last syllable:

ουρανός

ψυχή

γιαγιά


A word is Paroxytone if its accent falls on the second last syllable:

ελπίδα

πεύκο

τραγούδι

δρόμος


A word is Proparoxytone if its accent falls on the third last syllable:

άγγελος

Φίλιππος

θάλασσα

πρόσωπο


  Pronunciation

(also see The Monotonic System)

The Greek Alphabet

Pronunciation Guide

Many maintain that a knowledge of Ancient Greek is helpful when it comes to learning Modern Greek. This is true as far as vocabulary, grammar and syntax are concerned. However, for someone with a knowledge of the ancient language one great stumbling block to understanding and using the modern language is pronunciation

It is obvious that, during its very long history, the way in which Greek has been spoken has evolved and changed. We do know about changes in vowel and consonant sounds and when the original pitch accent evolved into a stress accent. But these important changes took place comparatively early on in the history of the language.

It would seem that the major changes in pronunciation had all been made by about 500 AD. The Orthodox Church preserved the language of the New Testament (see the Greek Language) and the way it was spoken. Because of the important role of the Church in Greek life and education, the sounds of the language have remained relatively stable for over a thousand years.

Although the sounds of the language have not changed much over the past centuries, there have been, and are, differences in dialects. Given the diaspora of Greeks throughout the world, it is hardly surprising that today there are many variations in pronunciation. Even within Greece itself there are some marked differences in how the language sounds. The rules for pronunciation offered here are based on the Standard Demotic used in Athens.

Every word has a stress accent on one of its syllables and each letter and syllable is pronounced, unlike the case in many English words.

The sound of any individual Greek word or phrase is not simply the result of combining the individual sounds of the letters. Each letter is affected both by the letter preceding it and the one following it, consequently, the same letter may sound different when used in different words.

Additionally, words and phrases have a rhythm which is more than just the result of the individual sounds of the letters. Likewise, each sentence has a rhythm and stress which varies with meaning and intention. However, one great advantage the student of Greek has over anyone learning English is that the individual sounds of the letters (in combination with one another) remain fairly fixed unlike the situation in English. Therefore, it's relatively easy to learn the basic sounds of Greek and how to pronounce the letters in combination. Once the rules have been mastered they can be applied with confidence to any word.


Differences in Pronunciation

The pronunciations of Cypriots, Cretans and northern Greeks have significant variations. Using the Cretan dialect as an example, an easily identified difference is the way in which the word no (όχι) is pronounced AW-shi, whereas in Standard Demotic it is pronounced AW-chi.


Pronunciation Guide

Pronunciation Guide (also see The Alphabet and/or Pronunciation)

Note: This guide uses the pronunciation of Standard Demotic used by educated Athenians. Although local Cypriot or Cretan accents (for example) are different in most respects

Every Greek word containing more than two syllables has a written accent  on the stressed syllable.

Letter
Α	α	half way between the a-sound in man and father -- represented by a -- άνθρωπος (AN-thro-poss).
Β	β	village -- βάζω (VA-zo)
Γ	γ	(1) a tricky sound not found in standard English -- γάλα (GHA-la) (2) yes -- γίνεται (YEE-net-e)
Δ	δ	these (not as in think) -- δίνω (DHEE-no)
Ε	ε	tell -- represented by e -- ελπίδα (el-PEE-dha)
Ζ	ζ	zoo -- ζωή (zoh-EE)
Η	η	peace -- represented by ee -- ήρθα (EER-tha)
Θ	θ	think (not as in these) -- θέλω (THE-lo)
Ι	ι	peace -- πίνω (PEE-no)
Κ	κ	king -- κορίτσι (ko-REET-see)
Λ	λ	lemon -- λεμόνι (le-MO-nee)
Μ	μ	me -- μητέρα (mee-TE-ra)
Ν	ν	no -- νύχτα (NEE-khta)
Ξ	ξ	tax -- ξέρω (KSE-ro)
Ο	ο	pot (same as ω) -- represented by o -- πότε (POT-e)
Π	π	a soft sound as in the second p in pipe -- πέφτω (PEF-to)
Ρ	ρ	a rolled r as in the Scottish pronunciation of Rob Roy -- μέρα (MEH-ra)
Σ	σ ς	see -- πίσω‚ άλλος (AL-os)
Τ	τ	ten -- τώρα (TO-ra)
Υ	υ	peace -- πολύ (po-LEE)
Φ	φ	faith -- φορά (for-A)
Χ	χ	similar to the sound in the German achtung -- χάνω (KHA-no)
Ψ	ψ	cops -- ψέμα (PSE-mah)
Ω	ω	pot (same as ο) -- πως (PO-s)

Diagraphs & Other Two Letter Combinations

αι	tell (same as epsilon) -- παίρνω (PER-no)
αυ	after or avail -- αυτός (aff-TOSS)‚ αύριο (AV-ri-o)
ει	peace (same as η) -- ειρήνη (ee-REE-nee)
ευ	effort or Everest -- ευχαριστώ (eff-kha-reest-O)‚ Ευρώπη (ev-ROP-ee)
οι	peace (same as η) -- οι άνθρωποι (EE AN-thro-pee)
ου	soup -- represented by oo -- που (POO)
γγ	single or anger -- Αγγλία (angg-LEE-a)
γκ	ink -- άγκυρα (ANK-ee-ra)
γχ	almost as in thank you when pronounced quickly -- άγχος (ANG-khoss)
γξ	thinks -- Σφιγξ (SFEENKS) -- this combination is not often found in Demotic.
μπ	bed -- μπαίνω (BEN-o)
ντ	dad -- ντύνω (DEEN-o)
γκ	gather -- γκαράζ (ga-RAZ)
τσ	pots or chair -- τσάι (TSA-ee)
τζ	adds or adze -- τζάκι (JAK-ee)

Diphthongs

There are no true diphthongs in Greek but some vowel combinations are often pronounced as though they formed a diphthong:

πάει	PA-ee (almost like the sound in high)
ρολόι	ro-LO-ee (almost like the sound in boy)

Double Consonants

Unlike in Classical Greek, double consonants are pronounced as single letters:

θάλασσα	THA-la-sa
αλλάζω	al-A-zo

Sound Changes

There are a number of situations when the normal sound of a letter is changed. A good grammar should be consulted for greater detail. The main sound changes are as follows.

When an unstressed ee-sound comes in front a vowel it becomes a y sound:

παιδιά	peh-DHYA
μάτια	MA-tya

This sound change is complicated. Sometimes it is a y sound, sometimes it more like a ch sound (like in chair). The change is not made in certain words of ancient origin. Some words which sound almost identical are distinguished by having or not having the change:

λόγια	(LO-yi-a) (learned)
λόγια	(LO-ya) (words)

The nasal sounds (like n and m) undergo and bring about a number of changes when they are close to certain other sounds, even across word boundaries. The changes can be quite complicated and few people are consistent about them but the following examples should be noted:

τον πόλεμο	(tom PO-le-mo)
στην πόλη	(steem BO-lee)
δεν ξέρω	(dheng KSE-ro)
άνθρωπος	(A-thro-poss)

A very common sound change (which is also reflected in the spelling) applies to the word και (and) when the next word starts with a vowel: κι εγώ >> kee-egh-O

Elision

When a word ends in a vowel sound and the following word begins with a vowel sound then the final vowel of the first word is elided (dropped) and its absence is indicated by an apostrophe. In some cases, it is the first vowel of the second word which is dropped:

τα άλλα	τ�΄ άλλα
σε αγαπώ	σ΄ αγαπώ
που είναι	που ΄ναι
έλα εδώ	έλα ΄δω
το όνομα	τ΄ όνομα
σου το είπα	στο είπα	στόπα
θα έρθω	θα ΄ρθω

In the case of the preposition σε before the definite article, the vowel is always dropped and the resulting combination written as a single word: (σε την) >> στην

Intonation

The intonation of a sentence tends to vary from region to region and person to person. For the novice the simplest rule is to complete each sentence with a falling intonation and use a rising intonation at the end of a question.


English Pronunciation

Compare how differently the -ough sound is pronounced in the words cough, through, thorough and rough.


Gamma

The letter γ has two distinct sounds -- that before α‚ ο‚ ω, ου and consonants. There is no English equivalent. It is somewhat like the Scottish ch sound in the word loch but with the vocal chords vibrating. It is also sometimes compared to the g sound in the Spanish Aragon -- γάλα. Here the sound is represented by the combination gh.

Before ε‚ αι‚ η‚ ι‚ υ‚ ει‚ οι

yes -- γεμάτος‚ γύρος‚ γήπεδο

When followed by an unstressed ee sound then another vowel, the result is a single syllable:

γιαλός	(ya-LOSS)
γειά σας	(YA-sass)


Kappa

The Greek κ is not as aspirated or rough like the English k. It is more like the French qu sound in quart.


Lambda

The λ is pronounced with the tongue behind the top teeth. It is always clear as in listen not as in the English pronunciation of fall.


δ & θ

It is important to distinguish these two sounds:

δ has the voiced dh sound like in the words these and there.

θ has the unvoiced th sound like in the words think and throw.


chi

When followed by the sounds η‚ ι‚ υ‚ οι‚ ει‚ ε and αι it is pronounced like the h in the name Huw (not the h in how):

χύνω	(CHEE-no)
χέρι	(CHE-ree)
When followed by other sounds, the letter is pronounced "rough" as the Scottish ch in loch:

χορός	(kho-ROSS)
χάνω	(KHA-no)


At the beginning of a word, the combination μπ sounds like the b in bed:

μπάλα	(BAHL-ah)
μπαίνω	(BEN-oh)
In the middle of a word, μπ sounds like the mb in combine:

γαμπρός	(gam-BROSS)
εμπρός	(em-BROSS)


At the beginning of a word or in the middle of words of foreign origin, the combination ντ sounds like the d in dad:

ντύνω	(DEEN-oh)
ντόπιος	(DOH-pyoss)
αντίο	(AH-dee-oh)
In the middle of words, ντ sounds like the nd in ending:

εντύπωση	(en-DEE-poh-see)
έντεκα	(EN-deck-ah)
εντολή	(en-doh-LEE)


Before the letters θ‚ κ‚ ξ‚ π‚ σ‚ τ, φ‚ χ and ψ, the combinations αυ and ευ have an f sound:

αυτός	(aff-TOSS)
ευχαριστώ	(eff-chah-reest-O)
ευτελής	(eff-tell-EES)
Before any other letter, the combinations αυ and ευ have a v sound:

αύριο	(AV-rioh)
ευλογώ	(ev-log-OH)
εύρημα	(EV-ree-mah)


In the middle of a word, the combination γκ sounds like the nk in ink:

άγκυρα	(ANK-gear-a)
αγκαλιά	(ank-gal-YAH)
At the beginning of a word, the combination γκ sounds like the g in gather:

γκρεμός	(greh-MOSS)
γκάζι	(GAH-zee)


Stress Accent

Modern Greek has a stress accent in that each word has a syllable which is pronounced more emphatically than the other syllables. In the official monotonic system, the stressed accent of words of more than one syllable is indicated by an acute accent. Normally the accent does not go further back than the third last syllable:

άνθρωπος

μητέρα

σταθμός

If a word with the accent on the third last syllable is followed by an enclitic pronoun, then, the accent of the enclitic is transferred to the last syllable of the preceding word, thereby giving it two stressed syllables with the greater emphasis given to the stress of the final syllable. The two words are pronounced as a single unit:

τα πράγματά μου	(tah PRG-ma-TAH-mou)

When words change their endings for grammatical reasons, then the accent often moves:

άνθρωπος	ανθρώπου


Many English words have letters or syllables which are not pronounced. The letter is simply not sounded or else modifies the sound of the preceding letter(s):

called

picture

Wednesday

February


The Greek letter τ is not as aspirated or rough as the English t. It is more like the French t in toujours.


The Greek letter π is not as aspirated or rough as in the English p. It is more like the French p in the word petit.


The τσ combination sounds like the ts in pots:

φάτσα	(FAT-sa)
έτσι	(ET-see)

Sometimes the τσ combination sounds like the ch in chair:

τσάι	(TSA-ee or CHA-ee)
καφετζής	(kaff-et-ZEESS)
τζάμι	(JAM-ee)
τζάκι	(JACK-ee)


The combination τζ sounds like the ds in the word adds:

καφετζής	(kaff-et-ZEESS)

Sometimes the τζ combination sounds like the j in the word jail:

τζάμι	(JAM-ee)
τζάκι	(JACK-ee)


Polytonic Accents

In some of the dialects of the ancient language there were words which started with an h sound. In the accent system developed by Aristophanes of Byzantium (circa 200 AD), the h sound and its absence was indicated by two symbols which came to be represented by an apostrophe (the "rough breathing") and a reversed apostrophe (the "smooth breathing") written over the initial vowel. All words starting with a vowel were written with a "rough breathing" or a "smooth breathing".

There were also three written accents to indicated the change of pitch: acute, grave and circumflex. For the past thousand years (since the pitch accent changed to a stress accent), these written accents and breathings had no effect on the pronunciation of the word with which they were associated.

In 1982, by a decree of parliament, they were officially abandoned and a monotonic system was introduced which did away with the breathings and replaced the three accents with a single accent -- an acute. Anyone making more than a cursory acquaintance with modern Greek will eventually come across the old system, either in texts published before 1982 or in works produced by conservative publishers. All that has to be remembered is that the initial breathings are to be ignored and the accent, whatever its appearance, should be treated simply as a stress accent.

Example of the old polytonic system:

Example of the monotonic system:

Χτες όλη η οικογένεια πήγε στην εξοχή.


Grammar

  Greek Grammar (also see Syntax)

Greek is a highly inflected language and the forms of most words change in accordance with their specific function within a sentence.

Grammar is the set of rules which determine the form or morphology of words. Another name for this is accidence. Grammar is distinguished from Syntax which is used to refer to the rules governing the structure of sentences.

Because of the long and complex history of the Greek language, the rules of grammar are complicated, extremely fluid and not necessarily firmly established. Even among highly educated Greeks there is disagreement about the fine points of specific grammatical usage.

Parts of Speech

Rules of Concord

Cases

Declensions

Articles

Nouns

Pronouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Middle Verbs

Adverbs

Prepositions

Numbers

It's pointless for the novice to worry about minute grammatical details. A firm grasp of the main rules should be the priority. Subtlety of usage can only be achieved with practice and familiarity.


An inflected language is one in which the endings of words change to indicated the function of the word in a sentence. English is not a highly inflected language since it has lost most of its inflected forms. However, it still retains some vestiges of inflection, for example, boy and boys, jump and jumped.


Syntax

  Greek Syntax (also see Grammar)

Syntax is the body of rules which determine how words are combined to make phrases and sentences while grammar is concerned with the formation of the words themselves.

Apposition

Cases (use of)

Causal Clauses

Commands

Comparison

Concessive Clauses

Conditional Mood

Conditional Sentences

Consecutive Clauses

Correlatives

Fearing Clauses

Final Clauses

Genitive Absolute

Impersonal Verbs

Indirect Speech

Main Clauses

ΝΑ (the particle)

Numbers

Oratio Obliqua (Indirect Speech)

Parataxis

Participles

ΠΟΥ (Uses of)

Principle Clauses

Prohibitions

Purpose Clauses

Questions

Relative Clauses

Result Clauses

Sentences

Space

ΘΑ (the particle)

Temporal Clauses

Time

Word Order


The Articles

  The Articles (also see The Uses of the Articles)

Greek has a definite article (the) and an indefinite article (a/an). Because of the nature of their meanings, the articles do not have vocative forms and the indefinite article does not have plural forms.

The Definite Article

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ο	η	το
Acc.	τον	την	το
Gen.	του	της	του
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	οι	οι	τα
Acc.	τους	τις	τα
Gen.	των	των	των
The Indefinite Article (does not have plural forms)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ένας	μιά	ένα
Acc.	έναν	μιάν	ένα
Gen.	ενός	μιάς	ενός
Note: The indefinite article is also the number one.


The final -ν of this word is only used when followed by a word beginning with a vowel or one of the following consonants: γκ‚ κ‚ μπ‚ π‚ ξ‚ ντ‚ τ‚ τσ‚ τζ or ψ.


Sometimes, when emphasized as a number, the accent is placed on the first vowel -- μία.


Uses of the Articles

  Uses of the Articles (also see The Articles)

Uses of the definite article

Uses of the indefinite article


The Definite Article

The Definite Article (also see Uses of the Indefinite Article and/or The Articles)

The definite article is used:

1 As in English to refer to something already mentioned or something specific:

Δεν έχω το βιβλίο που θέλεις.

= I don't have the book you want.

Πού είναι τα εισιτήρια;

= Where are the tickets?

2 With proper names including places, months, festivals, etc.:

Ο Γιάννης κατάγεται από την Αθήνα.

= Yanis comes from Athens.

Τα Χριστούγεννα θα γυρίσουμε στην Ελλάδα.

= At Christmas we will go back to Greece.

3 In generalizations:

Δεν μ' αρέσει το ψάρι.

= I don't like fish.

Ο άνθρωπος είναι το κορύφωμα της πλάσης.

= Man is the crowning point of creation.

4 With demonstrative and personal pronouns:

Αυτός ο άντρας είναι στην κυβέρνηση.

= That man is in the government.

Εκείνη η γυναίκα είναι η αδερφή μου.

= That woman is my sister.

Ο τουρίστης έχασε το διαβατήριό του.

= The tourist lost his passport.

5 When expressing times and dates:

Πρέπει να φύγουμε στις τρεις.

= We must leave at three o'clock.

Τις είκοσι Ιουλίου θα πάμε στη Νάξο.

= On the twentieth of July we will go to Naxos.

6 When expressing fractions:

Τα δύο τρίτα των ανθρώπων είναι γυναίκες.

= Two thirds of mankind are women.

7 With abstract nouns:

Η πρόοδος ποτέ δε σταματάει.

= Progress never stops.

Η αυταρεσκεία δεν είναι καλή ιδιοτροπία.

= Self-satisfaction is not a good characteristic.

8 To create a noun phrase:

Το ότι δεν την ξέρεις είναι απίστευτο.

= The fact that you don't know her is unbelievable.

Το να μην την ξέρεις είναι απίστευτο.

= Your not knowing her is unbelievable.

9 Note the following uses:

220 δραχμές το κίλο

= 220 drachmas a kilo.

δυό φορές τη βδομάδα

= twice a week.

τίποτα το ενδιαφέρον

= nothing interesting


The Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article (also see Uses of the Definite Article and/or The Articles)

The indefinite article is used:

1 As in English when talking about something not already mentioned or unidentified:

΄Εχω ένα βιβλίο που θα σ' ενδιαφέρει.

= I have a book which will interest you.

Βρήκα ένα εισιτήριο στο δρόμο.

= I found a ticket in the street.

2 In its numerical meaning:

Μόνο ένα εισιτήριο μένει.

= There is only one ticket left.

3 As an indefinite pronoun:

΄Ενας κύριος σε γυρεύει.

= A gentleman is looking for you.

Note: The indefinite article is not used as often as it is in English.


Nouns

  Nouns (also see The Cases)

A noun is a word used for the name of a person, animal, thing, place, action or quality. Greek nouns are grouped into three declensions based on the way in which one of their four cases are formed.

A noun is a word used for the name of a person, animal, thing, place, action or quality. Greek nouns are grouped into three declensions based on the way in which their four cases are formed.

 The Nominative is used for the subject of a finite verb

example

 The Vocative is used when the reference of the noun is being addressed

example

 The Accusative is mainly used for the direct object of a verb

example

 The Genitive is used to define or complete the meaning of another noun, e.g. in the relationship of possession or indirect object

example

1st Declension

2nd Declension

3rd Declension

Irregular Nouns


The case of a noun is an inflected form indicating whether the noun is the subject or object:

Nominative Case

Vocative Case

Accusative Case

Genitive Case


1st Declension

 1st Declension (return to Nouns)

Nouns in the 1st declension can be grouped into a number of categories depending on whether they are masculine or feminine, parisyllabic or imparisyllabic.

There are numerous categories in the 1st declension because it contains words originally derived from Classical Greek declensions which have been modified in various ways as well as words derived from Turkish. Some of the categories differ only in the way that the accent behaves as the word is declined. These include words like:

  1 φύλακας (guard)

  2 άνδρας (man, husband)

  3 ναύτης (sailor)

  4 καφές (coffee)

  5 συγγενής (relative)

  6 συγγραφέας (writer)

  7 θυγατέρα (daughter)

  8 όρνιθα (bird)

  9 θάλασσα (sea)

10 γιαγιά (grandmother)

11 πόλη (city)

12 κυβέρνηση (government)

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1 Masculine Parisyllabic nouns in -ας whose accent moves forward in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	φύλακας	οι	φύλακες
Voc.		φύλακα		φύλακες
Acc.	το	φύλακα	τους	φύλακες
Gen.	του	φύλακα	των	φυλάκων
Other words which decline like φύλακας (guard)

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2 Masculine Parisyllabic nouns in -ας which end in -ών in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	άνδρας	οι	άνδρες
Voc.		άνδρα		άνδρες
Acc.	τον	άνδρα	τους	άνδρες
Gen.	του	άνδρα	των	ανδρών
Other words which decline like άνδρας (man, husband)

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3 Masculine Parisyllabic nouns in -ης which end in -ών in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	ναύτης	οι	ναύτες
Voc.		ναύτη		ναύτες
Acc.	το	ναύτη	τους	ναύτες
Gen.	του	ναύτη	των	ναυτών
Other words which decline like ναύτης (sailor)

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4 Masculine Imparisyllabic nouns:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	καφές	οι	καφέδες
Voc.		καφέ		καφέδες
Acc.	τον	καφέ	τους	καφέδες
Gen.	του	καφέ	των	καφέδων
Other words which decline like καφές (coffee)

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5 Masculine words whose plural is based on the Classical Greek 3rd Declension:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	συγγενής	οι	συγγενείς
Voc.		συγγενή		συγγενείς
Acc.	το	συγγενή	τους	συγγενείς
Gen.	του	συγγενή	των	συγγενών
Other words which decline like συγγενής (relative)

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6 Masculine Imparisyllabic words whose plural is based on the Classical Greek 3rd Declension:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	συγγραφέας	οι	συγγραφείς
Voc.		συγγραφέα		συγγραφείς
Acc.	το	συγγραφέα	τους	συγγραφείς
Gen.	του	συγγραφέα	των	συγγραφέων
Other words which decline like συγγραφέας (writer)

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7 Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -α:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	η	θυγατέρα	οι	θυγατέρες
Voc.		θυγατέρα		θυγατέρες
Acc.	τη	θυγατέρα	τις	θυγατέρες
Gen.	της	θυγατέρας	των	θυγατέρων
Other words which decline like θυγατέρα (daughter)

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8 Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -α whose accent moves forward in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	η	όρνιθα	οι	όρνιθες
Voc.		όρνιθα		όρνιθες
Acc.	την	όρνιθα	τις	όρνιθες
Gen.	της	όρνιθας	των	ορνίθων
Other words which decline like όρνιθα (bird)

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9 Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -α which end in -ών in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	η	θάλασσα	οι	θάλασσες
Voc.		θάλασσα		θάλασσες
Acc.	τη	θάλασσα	τις	θάλασσες
Gen.	της	θάλασσας	των	θαλασσών
Other words which decline like θάλασσα (sea)

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10 Feminine Imparisyllabic nouns:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	η	γιαγιά	οι	γιαγιάδες
Voc.		γιαγιά		γιαγιάδες
Acc.	την	γιαγιά	τις	γιαγιάδες
Gen.	της	γιαγιάς	των	γιαγιάδων
Other words which decline like γιαγιά (grandmother)

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11 Feminine words whose plural is based on the Classical Greek 3rd Declension:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	η	πόλη	οι	πόλεις
Voc.		πόλη		πόλεις
Acc.	την	πόλη	τις	πόλεις
Gen.	της	πόλης	των	πόλεων
Other words which decline like πόλη (city)

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12 Feminine words whose plural is based on the Classical Greek 3rd Declension and whose accent moves forward in the plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	η	κυβέρνηση	οι	κυβερνήσεις
Voc.		κυβέρνηση		κυβερνήσεις
Acc.	την	κυβέρνηση	τις	κυβερνήσεις
Gen.	της	κυβέρνησης	των	κυβερνήσεων
Other words which decline like κυβέρνηση (government)

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Parisyllabic & Imparisyllabic

 A parisyllabic noun is one which has the same number of syllables in all its forms, for example:

αγώνας - αγώνα - αγώνες

 An imparisyllabic noun is one which has a different number of syllables in different forms, for example:

γιαγιά - γιαγιάδες


Words Like φύλακας (guard)

γείτονας	neighbor
πατέρας	father
πρόσφυγας	refugee
άρχοντας	leader
πίνακας	board


Words Like άνδρας (man, husband)

μήνας	month
λοχίας	captain
ταμίας	teller


Words Like ναύτης (sailor)

εργάτης	worker
ράφτης	sower
επιβάτης	passenger
στρατιώτης	soldier
καθρέφτης	mirror


Words Like καφές (coffee)

τενεκές	tin
καναπές	sofa
μεζές	hors d'oeuvre
κεφτές	meatball

Imparisyllabic masculine words ending in -ας -άδες:

γαλατάς	milkman
ψαράς	fisherman
παπάς	priest
βοριάς	north wind

Imparisyllabic masculine words ending in -ης, -ής -ήδες:

μανάβης	grocer
βαρκάρης	boatsman
χασάπης	butcher
Γιάννης	John
καφετζής	cafe owner
μπεκρής	drunkard


Words Like συγγενής (relative)

ασθενής	patient
ευγενής	nobleman


Words Like συγγραφέας (writer)

γραμματέας	secretary
εισαγγελέας	prosecutor
κουρέας	barber


Words like θυγατέρα (daughter)

πατρίδα	fatherland
εφημερίδα	newspaper
λαμπάδα	lamp
Ελλάδα	Greece
ελπίδα	hope
βάρκα	boat


Words Like όρνιθα (bird)

ταχύτητα	speed
ταυτότητα	identity
θερμότητα	heat
ικανότητα	ability


Words like θάλασσα (sea)

γλώσσα	tongue, language
μέλισσα	bee
μέρα	day
αίθουσα	hall
χώρα	country
γυναίκα	woman, wife


Words Like γιαγιά (grandmother)

κυρά	Mrs.
μαμά	mummy
οκά	oke (unit of weight)
νταντά	nurse

Imparisyllabic feminine words ending in -ού -ούδες:

μαϊμού	monkey
μπεκρού	drunkard
αλεπού	fox


Words Like κυβέρνηση (government)

απόφαση	decision
εντύπωση	impression
ένωση	union
όρεξη	appetite
παράδοση	tradition


Words Like πόλη (city)

θέση	place
κρίση	crisis
λέξη	word
στάση	stop
φράση	phrase


2nd Declension

 2nd Declension (return to Nouns)

The 2nd Declension corresponds almost completely with the 2nd Declension in Classical Greek. It contains nouns of all three genders and includes words like:

1 αδερφός (brother)

2 άνθρωπος (man, person)

3 καλόγερος (monk)

4 Feminine words in -ος

5 βιβλίο (book)

6 σύννεφο (cloud)

7 θέατρο (theater)

8 σπίτι (house)

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1 Masculine nouns in -oς and -ός:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	αδερφός	οι	αδερφοί
Voc.		αδερφέ		αδερφοί
Acc.	τον	αδερφό	τους	αδερφούς
Gen.	του	αδερφού	των	αδερφών
Other words which decline like αδερφός (brother)

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2 Proparoxytone masculine nouns in -oς whose accent moves forward in some cases:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	άνθρωπος	οι	άνθρωποι
Voc.		άνθρωπε		άνθρωποι
Acc.	τον	άνθρωπο	τους	ανθρώπους
Gen.	του	ανθρώπου	των	ανθρώπων
Other words which decline like άνθρωπος (man, person)

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3 Proparoxytone masculine nouns in -oς whose accent does not move forward:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	ο	καλόγερος	οι	καλόγεροι
Voc.		καλόγερε		καλόγεροι
Acc.	το	καλόγερο	τους	καλόγερους
Gen.	του	καλόγερου	των	καλόγερων
Other words which decline like καλόγερος (monk)

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4 There are feminine nouns in -oς which decline like αδερφός and άνθρωπος

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5 Neuter nouns in -o whose accent does not move:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	βιβλίο	τα	βιβλία
Voc.		βιβλίο		βιβλία
Acc.	το	βιβλίο	τα	βιβλία
Gen.	του	βιβλίου	των	βιβλίων
Other words which decline like βιβλίο (book)

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6 Proparoxytone neuter nouns in -o whose accent does not move:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	σύννεφο	τα	σύννεφα
Voc.		σύννεφο		σύννεφα
Acc.	το	σύννεφο	τα	σύννεφα
Gen.	του	σύννεφου	των	σύννεφων
Other words which decline like σύννεφο (cloud)

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7 Proparoxytone neuter nouns in -o whose accent moves forward in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	θέατρο	τα	θέατρα
Voc.		θέατρο		θέατρα
Acc.	το	θέατρο	τα	θέατρα
Gen.	του	θεάτρου	των	θεάτρων
Other words which decline like θέατρο (theater)

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8 Neuter nouns in -ι. These are always oxytone in the genitive:

	Singluar	Plural
Nom.	το	σπίτι	τα	σπίτα
Voc.		σπίτι		σπίτια
Acc.	το	σπίτι	τα	σπίτια
Gen.	του	σπιτιού	των	σπτιών
Other words which decline like σπίτι (house)

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Words Like αδερφός (brother)

ουρανός	sky
ιατρός	doctor
σταθμός	station
λογαριασμός	bill
λαός	people


Words Like άνθρωπος (man, person)

δάσκαλος	teacher
κύριος	mister, gentleman
έμπορος	merchant
κίνδυνος	danger
φιλόσοφος	philosopher


Words Like καλόγερος (monk)

κατήφορος	downward path
ανήφορος	upward path
Nouns which keep the accent on the third to last syllable tend to be polysyllabic words, words from pure Demotic or proper names.


2nd Declension Feminine Words

which decline like αδερφός (brother)

λεωφόρος	avenue
οδός	street

which decline like άνθρωπος (man)

είσοδος	entrance
έξοδος	exit
διάμετρος	diameter


Words Like σύννεφο (cloud)

δάχτυλο	finger
τριαντάφυλλο	rose
σίδερο	iron


Words Like θέατρο (theater)

μέτωπο	forehead
πρόσωπο	face
δωμάτιο	room
αυτοκίνητο	car


Words Like βιβλίο (book)

βουνό	mountain
δέντρο	tree
ταχυδρομείο	post office
καφενείο	cafι
νερό	water
λεωφορείο	bus


Words Like σπίτι (house)

τραγούδι	song
καλοκαίρι	summer
παιδί	child
ψωμί	bread


The Vocative Singular of 2nd Declension Nouns in -ος

Normally, the vocative singular has the same form as the nominative singular. However, 2nd declension nouns ending in -ος have a vocative which has a different ending -ε:

άνθρωπος	άνθρωπε
αδερφός	αδερφέ
κύριος	κύριε
δάσκαλος	δάσκαλε
Men's names and some words referring to men (which are paroxytone) have the vocative ending in -ο:

Γιώργος	Γιώργο
Πέτρος	Πέτρο
γέρος	γέρο


3rd Declension

 3rd Declension (return to Nouns)

The 3rd Declension somewhat corresponds to the neuter nouns of the Ancient 3rd Declension and includes words like:

1 γράμμα (letter)

2 πρόβλημα (problem)

3 τρέξιμο (running)

4 κρέας (meat)

5 φως (light)

6 προϊόν (product)

7 έθνος (nation)

8 μέγεθος (size)

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1 Imparisyllabic neuter nouns in -α whose accent moves forward in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	γράμμα	τα	γράμματα
Voc.		γράμμα		γράμματα
Acc.	το	γράμμα	τα	γράμματα
Gen.	του	γράμματος	των	γραμμάτων
Other words which decline like γράμμα (letter)

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2 Imparisyllabic neuter nouns in -α whose accent moves backwards or forwards in different cases:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	πρόβλημα	τα	προβλήματα
Voc.		πρόβλημα		προβλήματα
Acc.	το	πρόβλημα	τα	προβλήματα
Gen.	του	προβλήματος	των	προβλημάτων
Other words which decline like πρόβλημα (problem)

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3 Imparisyllabic neuter nouns in -ο whose accent moves forward in certain cases:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	τρέξιμο	τα	τρεξίματα
Voc.		τρέξιμο		τρεξίματα
Acc.	το	τρέξιμο	τα	τρεξίματα
Gen.	του	τρεξίματος	των	τρεξιμάτων
Other words which decline like τρέξιμο (running)

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4 Imparisyllabic neuter nouns in -ας whose accent moves forward in the genitive plural:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	κρέας	τα	κρέατα
Voc.		κρέας		κρέατα
Acc.	το	κρέας	τα	κρέατα
Gen.	του	κρέατος	των	κρεάτων
Other words which decline like κρέας (meat)

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5 Imparisyllabic neuter nouns in -ως and -ος:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	φως	τα	φώτα
Voc.		φως		φώτα
Acc.	το	φως	τα	φώτα
Gen.	του	φωτός	των	φώτων
Other words which decline like φως (light)

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6 Imparisyllabic neuter nouns in -ον and -αν:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	προϊόν	τα	προϊόντα
Voc.		προϊόν		προϊόντα
Acc.	το	προϊόν	τα	προϊόντα
Gen.	του	προϊόντος	των	προϊόνων
Other words which decline like προϊόν (product)

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7 Parisyllabic neuter nouns in -ος whose genitive plural is oxytone:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	έθνος	τα	έθνη
Voc.		έθνος		έθνη
Acc.	το	έθνος	τα	έθνη
Gen.	του	έθνους	των	εθνών
Other words which decline like έθνος (nation)

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8 Parisyllabic neuter nouns in -ος whose genitive plural is oxytone and whose accent moves in other cases:

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	το	μέγεθος	τα	μεγέθη
Voc.		μέγεθος		μεγέθη
Acc.	το	μέγεθος	τα	μεγέθη
Gen.	του	μεγέθους	των	μεγεθών
Other words which decline like μέγεθος (size)

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Words like γράμμα (letter)

δράμα	drama
αίμα	blood
χρώμα	color
βήμα	step


Words like πρόβλημα (problem)

όνομα	name
ζήτημα	question, quest
άγαλμα	statue
στοίχημα	bet


Words like τρέξιμο (running)

γράψιμο	writing
δέσιμο	binding
φέρσιμο	behavior
ντύσιμο	dressing


Words like κρέας (meat)

πέρας	conclusion
τέρας	monster
σέλας	light, glow


Words like φως (light)

The following words have the accent on the second last syllable in the genitive singular:

γεγονός	event, happening
καθεστώς	establishment, regime


Words like προϊόν (product)

παρόν	present
παρελθόν	past
καθήκον	duty


Words like έθνος (nation)

γένος	race
κράτος	power, state
λάθος	mistake
στήθος	chest


Words like μέγεθος (size)

έδαφος	floor
πέλαγος	sea
στέλεχος	official


Irregular Nouns

  Irregular Nouns (return to Nouns)

There are a number of nouns which, for various reasons, are classified as irregular or defective.

 Some nouns are found:

Only in the Singular

Only in the Plural

 Some nouns have:

Both Masculine & Neuter Forms

Cases Missing

 Some nouns of foreign origin are Indeclinable

 Women's Names in -ω

For other peculiarities consult a grammar book.


Aide-mιmoire (French) = an aid to the memory


  Parts of Speech

Parts of Speech are the various categories into which words are grouped:

Nouns	A noun is a word used as the name of a person, animal, thing, place or quality. Nouns are also called substantives and are divided into proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are the names of persons or places. Common nouns encompass all other nouns. Examples
Adjectives	An adjective is a word which describes a noun in terms of some quality possessed or exhibited by the noun. Examples
Pronouns	A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. There are a number of different types of pronouns. Examples
Verbs	A verb is a word which expresses an action, occurrence or state of being. Different forms of a verb express different ways in which the action is, has or will be occurring. Examples
Adverbs	An adverb is a word which is used to describe the action of a verb but can it can also be used to modify the meaning of adjectives or other adverbs. Examples
Prepositions	A preposition is a word used with nouns or pronouns to express a relationship with another word. Examples
Conjunctions	A conjunction is a word used to join together words, phrases or sentences. There are many different types of conjunctions. Examples
Particles	A particle is a small non-inflected word used together with other words to complete their function. Examples


Nouns

Proper Nouns
Greece, Athens, Mikis, Atlantic Ocean, etc.

Common Nouns

Concrete	man, dog, stone, water, etc.
Abstract	courage, freedom., dignity, etc.
Collective	group, government, army, etc.


Adjectives

Adjectives of Quality	good, bad, brave, honest, wicked, etc.
Adjectives of Quantity	much, few, ten, a hundred, etc.
Pronominal Adjectives	my, your, their, etc.


Pronouns

Personal	I, he, she, you, they
Reflexive	myself, himself, herself, yourself, themselves
Demonstrative	this, that, those
Relative	who, which, that
Interrogative	who? what?
Indefinite	someone, any


Verbs can express (among other things):

 tense

I am walking (present)

I walked (past)

he will walk (future)

 voice

I praised (active)

I was praised (passive)


Adverbs can:

 qualify verbs:

He ran quickly

She sang sweetly

We are staying here.

 qualify adjectives:

quite clever

very slow

 qualify other adverbs:

rather loudly

very slowly


Prepositions are used to express relationships between words:

Time	the lull after the battle
Space	the cart before the horse
Causality	because of the war
Agent	defeated by the enemy
Possession	the house of my neighbor


Conjunctions can be coordinating or subordinating.

Coordinating Conjunctions connect words, phrases or sentences which are of equal status:

Mikis and Melina

firm but fair

I see the moon and the moon sees me.

Subordinating Conjunctions attach to a sentence or clause another clause which is grammatically subordinate to it:

He entered when he heard the bell.

If he comes back we will tell him.

Although it is summer there is a cool breeze.


Particles are small words which do not decline and are used to complete or modify the meaning of another word:

θα	used to form the future
να	used to introduce the subjunctive or in exclamations
μα	used in exclamations
δεν	the normal negative particle
μη	the negative particle when used with subjunctive or imperative


  The Rules of Concord

The rules of concord (or rules of agreement) determine the way in which nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs agree grammatically with each other. In Greek, there are four rules of concord:

1 The verb agrees with its subject in both number and person:

Εγώ θα πάω στο θέατρο -- 1st person singular

Οι φίλοι μου πάνε στο θέατρο �-- 3rd person plural

Also see Subject-Verb Agreement for additional information.

2 An adjective agrees with its noun in number, gender and case:

γυναίκα ωραία -- singular, feminine, nominative

γυναικών ωραίων -- plural, feminine, genitive

Also see Noun-Adjective Agreement for further information.

3 When a noun is in apposition to another noun or a pronoun it agrees with it at least in case.

3 The relative pronoun has the same number and gender as its antecedent but its case is determined by the role it plays in its own clause. Also see relative clauses for additional information.


Concord of Subject & Verb

Concord of Subject & Verb (Agreement)

1 When a verb has two or more subjects, the verb is usually in the plural but sometimes it is put in the singular to agree with one of them:

Πέτρος και Μανώλης πανε στην Αθήνα.

΄Ερχεται ο Πέτρος και ο Μανώλης μαζί του.

2 If the subject is a singular noun which refers to a number of individuals, the plural of the verb is sometimes used:

΄Ο κόσμος ξέρουν καλά την ταυτότητά του.

3 If a composite subject is made up of different persons, then the verb agrees with the first person rather than the second or third or with the second person rather than the third:

Εγώ κι εσύ και ο Μανώλης θα πάμε όλοι μας στο σινεμά.

Μόνοι εσύ και ο Μανώλης δεν είδατε αυτό το έργο.

4 If the polite 2nd person plural of the verb is used with reference to a single person, then any associated adjective will be singular:

Είστε πολυ ευγενικός‚ κύριε.


Concord of Adjectives and Nouns

Concord of Adjectives & Nouns (Agreement)

1 If a single adjective is used in the predicative position to describe more than one person, then the adjective is usually plural:

Και ο πατέρας και ο αδερφός είναι πεθαμένοι.

If the adjective comes before the nouns, then it may agree with the closest noun:

Πολύ γνωστός είναι ο πατέρας του και ο αδερφός.

If the nouns are of different gender, then the adjective is usually plural:

Και ο πατέρας και η μητέρα είναι πεθαμένοι.

2 If a single adjective is used in the predicative position to describe more than one noun which refer to things, then the adjective is usually in the neuter plural:

Το φεγγάρι και η νύχτα ήταν πολύ όμορφα.

3 If a single adjective is used in the attributive position to describe more than one noun, then the adjective usually agrees with the nearest noun:

Ο αρχαίος πολιτισμός και γλώσσα μ' αρέσουν πολύ.


An adjective is in the predicative position when the quality is expressed as belonging to the noun, for example, "the soldier is brave".


An adjective is in the attributive position when it is attached to the noun to define it more closely, for example, "the brave soldier was wounded".


  The Cases

All Greek nouns, pronouns and adjectives have cases. Modern Greek has four cases:

Nominative	used by the subject of a verb. It is the "normal" form of the word.
Vocative	used when the object named by the word is being directly addressed. The word in the vocative stands outside the grammatical structure of the sentence.
Accusative	used by the direct object of the verb or after a preposition. The accusative is also used to express other things such as length of time.
Genitive	used mainly to indicate possession (e.g. the child's toy) or to indicate an adjectival relationship between two nouns (e.g. a block of wood = a wooden block). The genitive is also used to express other relationships between words.


The "normal form" of the word is the one which is used to refer to the word and under which it is usually found in dictionaries and vocabularies.


Case is the term used to describe the form of a noun, pronoun or adjective based on its ending which, in turn, determines its relationship with other words.

Modern Greek has four cases: the Nominative, Vocative, Accusative and Genitive. There are remnants of a fifth case (the Dative) which survives only in phrases from the classical language.


Number is the term used to refer to the state of a word as being, in some way, either singular or plural.


The Nominative Case

The Nominative

(return to The Cases or go to Vocative, Accusative or Genitive)

1 The nominative is used for the subject of the verb:

Ο πατέρας μας έχτισε μόνος του το σπίτι μας.

= Our father built our house on his own.

2 The nominative is used after the verb είναι and after passive verbs:

Ο πατέρας μας ήταν μάστορας χτίστης.

= Our father was a master builder.

Ο πατέρας μας διορίστηκε μάστορας χτίστης.

= Our father was appointed master builder.

3 There is an idiomatic use of the nominative after prepositions when the nominative is referring to the subject:

Από πλούσιος έγινε ζητιάνος.

= From being rich he ended up a beggar.

Ο αδερφός μου πάει για δικηγόρος.

= My brother is going to be a lawyer.


The Vocative Case

The Vocative

(return to The Cases or go to Nominative, Accusative and/or Genitive)

The vocative, with or without the interjection ε, stands outside the construction of the sentence and is used to indicate the person (or thing) addressed. Aside from 2nd declension words ending in -ος, the vocative has the same spelling as the nominative:

Ελα δω‚ παιδί.

= Come here, lad.

΄Ε‚ βλάκα‚ τί κάνεις:

= Hey idiot, what are you doing?

Πού πας‚ Γιώργο;

= Where are you going, Yorgo?

Τί θα θέλατε‚ κύριε;

= What would you like, sir?

Often, in colloquial speech, the interjection ρε is used, with or without an accompanying noun:

Πάμε‚ ρε παιδιά!

= Let's go, guys!

Τί κάνεις εκεί‚ ρε;

= Hey, what are you doing there?

Βρε τί λες!

= Hey, fancy that! (literally, "what do you say?")


This interjection comes in two forms: ρε and βρε. It seems to be a shortened form of the less frequent vocative interjection μωρέ.


The Accusative Case

The Accusative

(return to The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Genitive)

1 The most common use of the accusative is as the direct object of the verb:

Ο Γιάννης φώναξε τον ιατρό.

= Yanis called the doctor.

2 Some verbs can take two accusatives:

Διδάσκω την Ελένη τα Αγγλικά.

= I am teaching Eleni English.

3 The accusative is used after all common prepositions:

Η Ελένη κατάγεται από την Αθήνα.

= Eleni comes from Athens.

Αύριο θα ξεκινηθούμε για την Αθήνα.

= Tomorrow we will set off for Athens.

4 The accusative is used in expressions of time and measurement:

νύχτα

= at night

τη νύχτα

= during the night

Την Κυριακή θα πάμε στην Ακρόπολη.

= On Sunday we will go to the Acropolis.

Την ερχόμενη βδομάδα πρέπει να φύγω.

= I must leave next week.

Τα Χριστούγεννα προτιμώ να μείνω στο σπίτι.

= At Christmas I prefer to stay at home.

Οι τοίχοι είχαν δέκα μέτρα ύψος.

= The walls were ten meters high.

5 There is a distributive use of the accusative:

διακόσιες δραχμές το κιλό

= 200 drachmas a kilo

πέντε φορές την ώρα

= five times an hour

6 The accusative of respect covers a number of uses (including number 4 above):

Το σπίτι ήταν γεμ�άτο ποντίκια.

= The house was full of mice. (literally "with respect to mice")

ένα μπουκάλι κρασί

= a bottle of wine. (= with respect to wine)

Ο ΄Αρης είναι καλλιτέχνης το επάγγελμα.

= Aris is an artist by profession. (literally "with respect to his profession")

Οι τοίχοι είχαν δέκα μέτρα ύψος.

= The walls were ten meters high. (literally "with respect to height")

7 The accusative is used in various exclamations:

μα το Θεό!

= by God!

να τη Μαρία!

= Here's Maria!

Καλώς τον!

= Welcome (to him)!

Ανάθεμά την!

= Damn her!

Τον καημένο!

= Poor man!

8 There are various idiomatic uses of the accusative which can not be systematically classified and which the novice is advised to learn as they are encountered.


The Genitive

(return to The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

Also see:

Possessive Genitive

Genitive Used to Indicate Indirect Object

Descriptive Genitive

Genitive of Quality

Partitive Genitive

Subjective Genitive

Objective Genitive

Genitive of Measurement

Genitive of Pronouns

Idiomatic Uses of the Genitive

In English, the genitive is often rendered with the use of the preposition of or with an 's (apostrophe + s), for example, the citadel of Corinth = Corinth's citadel

In general, the genitive is used to complete the meaning of another noun on which it depends. Consequently, it "almost" has the function of an adjective in many uses, for example, a crown of gold = a gold crown

The genitive is also used after certain verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Many of its functions are those which were once accomplished by the use of the now extinct dative case.

Some words do not have a genitive in the plural or have none at all. In these cases, the function of the genitive is carried out by other methods. Most uses of the genitive apply to words which refer to people rather than things. Many speakers tend to avoid the genitive if they can by using other methods to express the same idea.

There are so many different uses of the genitive that it is almost pointless to attempt to place them into well-defined categories. Consequently, although some of the uses of the genitive are explained here, you should keep in mind that these are not exhaustive and that there are numerous exceptions:

Possessive Genitive

Genitive Used to Indicate Indirect Object

Descriptive Genitive

Genitive of Quality

Partitive Genitive

Subjective Genitive

Objective Genitive

Genitive of Measurement

Genitive of Pronouns

Idiomatic Uses of the Genitive


The Possessive Genitive

(return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Possessive Genitive indicates possession. In ordinary spoken Greek, this use is almost exclusively in relation to people:

Ο άνδρας της Μαρίας έρχεται.

= Maria's husband is coming.

Η γυναίκα μου έρχεται.

= My wife is coming. (literally, the wife of me)


The Genitive of Indirect Object

The Genitive of Indirect Object (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The genitive is used to indicate the indirect object. In normal speech this use tends to be confined to pronouns with nouns being used in a prepositional phrase. But in formal speech, the genitive of indirect object is used with nouns. However, if the noun and the pronoun are both used, then the genitive is always used:

Ο Γιώργος μου έδωσε το βιβλίο.

= George gave me the book

΄Εδωσα το βιβλίο του Γιώργου.

= I gave the book to George.

Ο Γιώργος μου έκανε μια χάρη.

= George did a favor for me.

΄Εκανα μια χάρη του Γιώργου.

= I did a favor for George.

Του Γιώργου του έδωσα το βιβλίο.

= It was to George I gave the book.

Please note that there are a number of uses of indirect objects which, in Classical Greek grammar, would be described as ethic datives or datives of separation. These can be loosely described as indirect objects -- words which are indirectly the object of the sentence:

Τί μου γίνεσαι;

= How are you (tell me)?

Ο Γιώργος μου πήρε το βιβλίο.

= George took the book from me.

The following are also common uses of the genitive:

Καλημέρα σας!

= hello (to you)!

Γειά σου!

= Goodbye (to you)!


The Descriptive Genitive

The Descriptive Genitive (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Descriptive Genitive defines the noun on which it depends by specifying its content or material:

ένας ράβδος χρυσού

= a bar of gold

ένα μπουκάλι του κρασιού

= a wine bottle (= of wine)


The Genitive of Quality

The Genitive of Quality (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Genitive of Quality defines the noun on which it depends by denoting some quality. It is often qualified by an adjective or demonstrative:

ένα αγόρι μεγάλης ικανότητας

= a boy of great ability

ένα σχολείο αυτού του ειδούς

= a school of this type


The Partitive Genitive

The Partitive Genitive (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Partitive Genitive indicates the whole of which only a part is mentioned:

η κορφή του βουνού

= the top of the mountain

οι τοίχοι του σπιτού

= the walls of the house


The Subjective Genitive

The Subjective Genitive (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Subjective Genitive represents what would be the subject of a verb corresponding to the noun on which it depends:

η πτώση της κυβέρνησης

= the fall of the government (= the government falls)

η απογείωση του αεροπλάνου

= the take off of the plane (= the plane takes off)


The Objective Genitive

The Objective Genitive (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Objective Genitive represents what would be the object of a verb corresponding to the noun on which it depends. It is commonly used with nouns and adjectives in which the verbal idea is strong, especially those which indicate desire, knowledge, fear, care, or power. It is also used after the present participle as an adjective:

η καταστροφή της πόλης

= the destruction of the town (= they destroy the town)

η υποστήριξη της κυβέρνησης

= the support of the government (= they support the government)


The Genitive of Measurement

The Genitive of Measurement (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

The Genitive of Measurement expresses size or age:

ένα κορίτσι δέκα χρονών

= a girl ten years old (literally of ten years)

ένας τοίχος δέκα μέτρων

= a wall ten meters high (literally of ten meters)


The Genitive Pronouns

The Genitive of Pronouns (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

There are many uses of the genitive of pronouns which intensify or modify the meaning of an adjective:

μόνος μου

= on my own

ένας τους

= one of them

ο καθένας μας

= each of us

είναι δικό του αυτοκίνητο

= it is his own car

ποτέ μου

= never (in my life)

μέσα του

= inside it


Idiomatic Uses of the Genitive

Idiomatic Uses of the Genitive (return to The Genitive, The Cases or go to Nominative, Vocative or Accusative)

There are numerous idiomatic uses of the genitive which cannot be easily categorized. They are best learned as they are encountered, for example:

του χρόνου

= next year

του θανατά

= at death's door


...or use the prepositional phrase για το Γιώργο.


...or use the prepositional phrase στο Γιώργο.


The ethic dative (or ethical dative) was used with pronouns in ancient Greek with the essential meaning of for the sake of..., as far as concerns..., etc.


Note the meaning of the accusative in this phrase:

ένα μπουκάλι κρασί

= a glass of wine (i.e. full of wine)


A prepositional phrase is simply one which uses a preposition.


Gender

  Gender (also see Adjectives)

All Greek nouns are one of three genders:

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Nouns referring to males or male occupations are masculine.

Nouns referring to females or female occupations are feminine.

Nouns referring to inanimate objects or abstract ideas can be any gender including neuter.

Note: If an adjective refers to several words of different gender, then, the masculine is used if the nouns refer to people. In other cases, the adjective agrees with the nearest noun. All neuter nouns follow two basic rules:

 The accusative ending is always the same as the nominative.

 The nominative, vocative and accusative plural end in -α.


Feminine Nouns Referring to Males

It is possible to have a feminine noun refer to a male:

Ο πατέρας του είναι μια πολύ παράξενη προσωπικώτητα (f, noun)

= His father is a very strange character.

In such cases, the accompanying adjective agrees with the gender of the noun and not the sex of the individual referred to.


Masculine Nouns Referring to Females

In Greek, masculine nouns can be used to refer to women. In these instances, it is not felt that the masculine noun is masculine but rather of common gender, consequently, any adjective qualifying such a masculine noun will be masculine:

Η γυναίκα μου είναι καλός άνθρωπος (m, noun).

= My wife is a good person.

Ο διευθυντής (m, noun) του σχολείο μου είναι γυναίκα.

= The head of my school is a woman.


Ο Γιάννης και η Φρόσω είναι έτοιμοι.

= Yanis and Phroso are ready (m + f with m adj.)

Ο Μενέλαος μιλούσε με πολλή πίκρα και θυμό.

= Menelaos spoke with much bitterness and anger (f + m noun with f adj.)


The stem of a word is that part to which the endings are attached.


Declension is the name given to a group of nouns which form their cases in the same way. Greek nouns can be grouped in various ways but here they are divided into three declensions (as in Classical Greek) and each declension contains a number of subgroups.


The Nominative

Ο άνδρας κοιτάζει τη γυναίκα

= The man looks at the woman.


The Vocative

Τί θέλεις‚ κύριε;

= What do you want, sir?


The Accusative

Ο άνδρας κοιτάζειτη γυναίκα

= The man looks at the woman.


The Genitive

Ο άνδρας κοιτάζειτη γυναίκα του Πέτρου.

= The man is looking at Petros' wife.

Ο άνδρας μου δίνει τα λεφτά.

= The man gives the money to me.


Some Nouns are Found Only in the Singular or their plurals are provided by different forms:

μηδέν	nothing
πρωί	morning (plural provided by τα πρωινά)
το σέλας	light, radiance


There are many Nouns Found Only in the Plural:

τα γενέθλια	birthday
τα ήπατα	liver
τα κιάλια	binoculars
τις προάλλες	the other day (only in this phrase)
τα σύγκαλα	found in the phrase στα σύγκαλα (in your right mind)


Nouns of More than One Gender

Some nouns which are masculine can have masculine and neuter plurals, sometimes with different meanings:

ο λόγος	speech	οι λόγοι	speeches	τα λόγια	words
ο καπνός	smoke	οι καπνοί	fumes	τα καπνά	tobacco
ο χρόνος	time, year	οι χρόνοι	tenses	τα χρόνια	years
ο ουρανός	sky	οι ουρανοί	skies	τα ουράνια	heavens


Some Nouns Have Cases Missing or are found only in certain cases:

το δειλί	afternoon -- found only in nominative
του θανατά	at death's door -- found only in this genitive phrase
του κάκου	in vain -- found only in this genitive phrase
το σέβας	respect -- found only in nominative and accusative case


Nouns Which Do Not Decline

Words adopted from other languages usually do not decline. They keep the same ending no matter the case:

το γκαράζ - του γκαράζ	garage
το ρεκόρ - τα ρεκόρ	record
το σπορ - τα σπορ	sport
ο σταρ - οι σταρ	(movie) star
Prefixes which are added to the beginning of a word do not decline even though they may decline when used separately:

της `Αγιας Σοφίας but της Αγια-Σοφίας	St. Sofia
του πατρός but του πατερ-Δημήτριου	Father Demetrios


Proper Names Ending in -ω

There is a category of women's names which end in -ω.

Nom.	η	Φροσώ
Voc.		Φροσώ
Acc.	τη	Φροσώ
Gen.	της	Φροσώς
Other names like: Λενιώ‚ Βαγγελιώ‚ Δύσπω and Σμαρώ.

Also declined like this is the name of the island Kos (Κω) and the word for echo (ηχώ).


  Verbs

1st Conjugation

2nd Conjugation (Group 1)

2nd Conjugation (Group 2)

Deponent Verbs

Irregular Verbs

Verbs are words which express an action, occurrence or state of being.

The way in which the finite form of the verb is used is shown by its ending. The ending is added to the stem. The ending of a verb can also show person, tense, voice or mood.

In addition to the normal moods of the verb, there is also a conditional mood. Verbs also have finite forms:

Verbs also have infinite forms:

 infinitive

 participle

A verb can be transitive or intransitive. The Greek verb also has aspect. Most verbs have three stems (called principal parts) which are used in forming all other parts of the verb.

Greek verbs are grouped into conjugations depending on how the endings are added to the stem. There are two conjugations and a number of irregular verbs. Because of the complexity of the Greek verbs, the following provide only the recommended forms and only the most common variations:

1st Conjugation

2nd Conjugation (Group 1)

2nd Conjugation (Group 2)

Deponent Verbs

Irregular Verbs


Finite refers to any form of the verb which is inflected for grammatical features such as person, number and tense.

Infinite refers to the other forms of the verb which cannot have all these grammatical features.


The characteristic vowel is the vowel or diphthong in the last syllable of the stem.


Variations

For the novice, Greek verbs are perhaps the most troublesome part of the Greek language. One reason is that much of the structure of the verb system is inherited from the classical language. The reasons why a specific verb has a particular form may be quite apparent in the ancient language but far from obvious in the modern. But there were many exceptions and irregularities even in the ancient language.

Because of the more recent history of the language, the rules and guidelines provided by any grammar will not be universally accepted or adhered to by all native speakers. Therefore, there is little point in providing an exhaustive list of all the exceptions and irregularities because such can only really be mastered with experience.


Deponent Verbs

Deponent Verbs (also see Verbs)

A deponent verb is one which has only passive endings and only active meanings. Such verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, for example:

αισθάνομαι	I feel
γίνομαι	I become
έρχομαι	I come
θυμάμαι	I remember
κοιμάμαι	I sleep
λυπάμαι	I am sorry
φοβάμαι	I fear


Verb Endings

Verb Endings (also see Verbs)

Following are the basic endings which are attached to verb stems to form the various parts of the verb. Many of the forms of the verb have identical endings and are only distinguished by their grammatical context. Also see verbs of the 2nd Conjugation (Group 1) and/or 2nd Conjugation (Group 2).

 Active Endings

Present Indicative -- both Future Indicatives and Aorist Subjunctive

-ω	I
-εις	you (sing.)
-ει	he/she/it
ουμε	we
-ετε	you (pl.)
ουν	they

Imperfect and Aorist Indicative

-α	I
-ες	you (sing.)
-ε	he/she/it
-αμε	we
-ατε	you (pl.)
αν	they

 Passive Endings

Indicative Present, Continuous Future and Subjunctive Present

-ομαι	I
-εσαι	you (sing.)
-εται	he/she/it
-όμαστε	we
-εστε	you (pl.)
-ονται	they

Imperfect

-όμουν	I
-όσουν	you (sing.)
-όταν	he/she/it
-όμαστε	we
-όσαστε	you (pl.)
-ονταν	they

Aorist

-ηκα	I
-ηκες	you (sing.)
-ηκε	he/she/it
-ήκαμε	we
-ήκατε	you (pl.)
-ηκαν	they

Subjunctive Future & Subjunctive Aorist

ώ	I
-είς	you (sing.)
-εί	he/she/it
-ούμε	we
-είτε	you (pl.)
-ούν	they


The form -ομε is sometimes used by older people instead of the standard -ουμε.


This form of the verb is rare or not used.


The Perfect Tenses

Sometimes the following forms are found using the perfect passive participle which agrees in number, gender and case with the word it describes:

Active

Perfect	έχω δεμένο
Pluperfect	είχα δεμένο
Future Perfect	θα έχω δεμένο
Passive

Perfect	είμαι δεμένος
Pluperfect	ήμουν δεμένος
Future Perfect	θα είμαι δεμένος
Notice that the participle part changes according to the sentence.


The ending of the third person plural sometimes has an -ε at the end of it:

-ουν >> -ουνε

-αν >> -ανε

The forms with the -ε are more colloquial.


The form -ουμαι is also found but is regarded as rather colloquial.


The form -οσαστε is also found but is considered rather colloquial and can be confused with the imperfect.


Variant Endings of the Imperfect Passive

There are a number of variant forms for the imperfect passive, some are colloquial and some favored in various regions of Greece. The variant forms are:

-μουν(α)

-σουν(α)

-ταν(ε)/-νταν

-μαστε/-μασταν

-σαστε/-σασταν

-ντουσαν/-νταν(ε)/-νδαν

The forms ending in -α or -ε are more colloquial. Novices are advised to adhere to the standard recommended forms.


Aspect

Aspect (also see Verbs and/or Tenses)

Aspect is perhaps the most difficult part of a Greek verb for the novice to master. It's easily described but can be elusive in practice. There are two aspects:

 continuous

 perfective

The continuous aspect of a verb is used of an action which is considered to be continuous over a length of time or of general application without reference to time. It is the process of the action that is stressed rather than when it started or when (or if) it is completed. The continuous tenses of the verb are:

 Present

 Imperfect

 Continuous Future

 Present Subjunctive

 Present Imperative

The perfective aspect of a verb is used of an action which is considered to be complete or over and done with, without particular reference to the process. The perfective tenses of the verb are:

 Present

 Aorist

 Simple Future

 Aorist Subjunctive

 Aorist Imperative

These aspects, when referring to the past or future in perfective tenses, simply indicate past or future actions without stressing the process of the action. But verbs in the continuous tenses always stress the process or continuity of the action.


There are no separate forms for the continuous present and perfective present. The one form is used for both. The context of the sentence will indicate which form of the present is being used:

Κάθε μέρα διαβάζω τις εφημερίδες.

= Every day I read the newspapers. (perfective present)

΄Οχι‚ δε διαβάζω την εφημερίδα σας.

= No, I am not reading your paper. (continuous present)


There are no universally agreed terms for the two aspects of Greek verbs and they are sometimes given different names, for example:

 Continuous and Simple

 Imperfective and Perfective


The Principal Parts of a Verb

The three principal parts of a Greek verb from which all the other parts are derived are the:

Present Stem	δέν - ω
Aorist Stem	έ - δεσ - α
Aorist Passive Stem	δέθ - ηκα
If you know the three principal parts and the ending, you can construct most forms of the verb.


The Aorist Stem is perhaps the single most difficult aspect of the Greek for the novice.

(bmc bullet.bmp} Active

There are two types of basic stem:

Sigmatic -- a is added to the present stem. This combines with the final letter of the stem to form the aorist stem:

κρυβ- σ >> κρυψ-

πλεκ- σ >> πλεξ-

Asigmatic -- the aorist stem is the same as the present stem or slightly different:

προσφέρ- >> πρόσφερ-

στελν�- >> στειλ-

μαθαίν->> μαθ-

2nd Conjugation verbs normally have an -η- before the -σ- but a very few have -ε- or even -α-:

αγαπ - η - σ

καλ - ε - σ

δρ - α - σ

(bmc bullet.bmp} Passive

These usually end either in -θ- or in -τ-:

δένω >> δέθ -

κρύβω >> κρυφτ -

Although there are linguistic rules governing the formation of the passive aorist stem, it is probably better for the novice to learn the stems for each verb as they are encountered.


1st Conjugation Active

1st Conjugation Active (also see Passive and/or Indicative or Subjunctive)

Verbs which have an accent on the second to the last syllable belong to this conjugation. This accounts for most verbs. However, there is no common verb which can be used as an example which does not involve some modification to the present stem to form the other two stems. The verb most commonly used as an example is δένω (tie). The forms of the verb are grouped by stem type.

See Verb Endings for variations in the endings provided in the following. Also see the Aorist Active Stems and/or Aorist Passive Stems.

 Active Forms Based on the Present Stem δέν-

Present

δένω	I tie
δένεις	you (sing.) tie
δένει	he/she/it ties
δένουμε	we tie
δένετε	you (pl.) tie
δένουν	they tie

Continuous Future

θα δένω	I will be tying
θα δένεις	you (sing.) will be tying
θα δένει	he/she/it will be tying
θα δένουμε	we will be tying
θα δένετε	you (pl.) will be tying
θα δένουν	they will be tying

Imperfect

έδενα	I was tying/I used to tie
έδενες	you (sing.) were tying
έδενε	he/she/it was tying
δέναμε	we were tying
δένατε	you (pl.) were tying
έδεναν	they were tying

Imperative

δένε	tie (sing.)
δένετε	tie (pl.)

Present Participle

δένοντας	tying

 Active Forms Based on the Aorist Stem δέσ-

Future

θα δέσω	I will tie
θα δέσεις	you (sing.) will tie
θα δέσει	he/she/it will tie
θα δέσουμε	we will tie
θα δέσετε	you (pl.) will tie
θα δέσουν	they will tie

Aorist

έδεσα	I tied
έδεσες	you (sing.) tied
έδεσε	he/she/it tied
δέσαμε	we tied
δέσατε	you (pl.) tied
έδεσαν	they tied

Perfect

έχω δέσει	I have tied
έχεις δέσει	you (sing.) have tied
έχει δέσει	he/she/it has tied
έχουμε δέσει	we have tied
έχετε δέσει	you (pl.) have tied
έχουν δέσει	they have tied

Pluperfect

είχα δέσει	I had tied
είχες δέσει	you (sing.) had tied
είχε δέσει	he/she/it had tied
είχαμε δέσει	we had tied
είχατε δέσει	you (pl.) had tied
είχαν δέσει	they had tied

Future Perfect

θα έχω δέσει	I will have tied
θα έχεις δέσει	you (sing.) will have tied
θα έχει δέσει	he/she/it will have tied
θα έχουμε δέσει	we will have tied
θα έχετε δέσει	you (pl.) will have tied
θα έχουν δέσει	they will have tied

Aorist Imperative

δέσε	tie (sing.)
δέστε	tie (pl.)


The Aorist Stems of the 1st Conjugation

The Aorist Stems of the 1st Conjugation Verbs (return to 1st Conjugation)

The most common form of Aorist Stem for 1st Conjugation verbs is the sigmatic type: adding -σ- to the present stem. Because the present stem of most all common verbs ends in a consonant, this is modified by the following -σ- according to the following rules:

1 If the present stem ends in a vowel or -ζ-‚ -θ-, or -ν-, the consonant is lost and the Aorist Stem ends in -σ-:

ελπίζω >>	έλπισα
ενώνω >>	ένωσα
εξετάζω >>	εξέτασα
καρφώνω >>	κάρφωσα
πείθω >>	έπεισα
πληρώνω >>	πλήρωσα
2 If the present stem ends in -αυ-‚ -ευ-, -β-‚ -π-�� or -φ-‚ then the Aorist Stem ends in -ψ-:

βάφω >>	έβαψα
γράφω >>	έγραψα
δουλεύω >>	εδούλεψα
κρύβω >>	έκρυψα
λείπω >>	έλειψα
3 If the present stem ends in -γ-‚ -κ-‚ -χ-or -ξν-, the Aorist Stem ends in -ξ-:

ανοίγω >>	άνοιξα
αρπάζω >>	άρπαξα
βρέχω >>	έβρεξα
δείχνω >>	έδειξα
παίζω >>	έπαιξα
ρίχνω >>	έριξα
As with all Greek verbs, it is wise to consult a dictionary for the principal parts, including the aorist passive stem.


Note that some verbs whose present stems end in -ζ- have an aorist stem ending in -ξ-:

άγγιζω >>	άγγιξα
παίζω >>	έπαιξα
φωνάζω >>	φώναξα
As with all Greek verbs, it's wise to consult a dictionary for the principal parts.


Some verbs in -ευ- (which are felt to be Katharevousa rather than Demotic) form their aorist in -ευσ-:

ημερεύω >>	ημέρευσα
στρατεύω >>	στράτευσα


There are basically two types of Aorist Passive Stems:

1 Those whose present stem ends in a vowel or -λ- or -ρ- and whose aorist passive stem ends in -θ: ιδρύω >> ιδρύθηκα

2 Those whose present stem ends in some other consonant and whose aorist passive stem ends in -τ: κοιτάζω >> κοιτάχτηκα

As with all Greek verbs, there are many exceptions to the rules and it is wise to consult a dictionary for the principal parts.


1st Conjugation Passive

1st Conjugation Passive (also see Active, Indicative and Subjunctive)

Most verbs belong to this group. However, there is no common verb which can be used as an example which does not involve some modification to the present stem to form the other two stems. The verb most commonly used as an example is δένω (tie). The forms of the verb are grouped by stem type. See Verb Endings for variations in the endings. Also see the list of common modifications to the stems.

 Passive Forms Based on the Present Stem δέν-

Present

δένομαι	I am tied/I am being tied
δένεσαι	you (sing.) are tied
δένεται	he/she/it is tied
δενόμαστε	we are tied
δένεστε	you (pl.) are tied
δένονται	they are tied

Continuous Future

θα δένομαι	I will be tied
θα δένεσαι	you (sing.) will be tied
θα δένεται	he/she/it will be tied
θα δενόμαστε	we will be tied
θα δένεστε	you (pl.) will be tied
θα δένονται	they will be tied

Imperfect

δενόμουν	I was being tied/I used to be tied
δενόσουν	you (sing.) were being tied
δενόταν	he/she/it was being tied
δενόμαστε	we were being tied
δενόσαστε	you (pl.) were being tied
δένονταν	they were being tied

Imperative

δένου	be tied (sing.)
δένεστε	be tied (pl.)

Present Participle

not used

 Passive Forms Based on the Aorist Passive Stem δέθ-

Future

θα δεθώ	I will be tied
θα δεθείς	you (sing.) will be tied
θα δεθεί	he/she/it will be tied
θα δεθούμε	we will be tied
θα δεθείτε	you (pl.) will be tied
θα δεθούν	they will be tied

Aorist

δέθηκα	I was tied
δέθηκες	you (sing.) were tied
δέθηκε	he/she/it was tied
δεθήκαμε	we were tied
δεθήκατε	you (pl.) were tied
δέθηκαν	they were tied

Perfect

έχω δεθεί	I have been tied
έχεις δεθεί	you (sing.) have been tied
έχει δεθεί	he/she/it has been tied
έχουμε δεθεί	we have been tied
έχετε δεθεί	you (pl.) have been tied
έχουν δεθεί	they have been tied

Pluperfect

είχα δεθεί	I had been tied
είχες δεθεί	you (sing.) had been tied
είχε δεθεί	he/she/it had been tied
είχαμε δεθεί	we had been tied
είχατε δεθεί	you (pl.) had been tied
είχαν δεθεί	they had been tied

Future Perfect

θα έχω δεθεί	I will have been tied
θα έχεις δεθεί	you (sing.) will have been tied
θα έχει δεθεί	he/she/it will have been tied
θα έχουμε δεθεί	we will have been tied
θα έχετε δεθεί	you (pl.) will have been tied
θα έχουν δεθεί	they will have been tied

Aorist Imperative

δέσου	be tied (sing.)
δεθείτε	be tied (pl.)

Perfect Participle

δεμένος	tied/having been tied


In English, there is no distinction made between the passive continuous future and the passive simple future.


1st Conjugation Subjunctive

1st Conjugation Subjunctive (also see Active and/or Passive)

Most verbs belong to the 1st Conjugation, however, there is no common verb which can be used as an example which does not involve some modification to the present stem to form the other two stems. The verb most commonly used as an example for the 1st Conjugation is δένω (tie).

The subjunctive is most commonly used in subordinate clauses after particles like θα‚ να and ας and after the negative μη. In form, the subjunctive is identical to the indicative. See Verb Endings for variations in the endings.

Present (tie)

Active	Passive
δένω	δένομαι
δένεις	δένεσαι
δένει	δένεται
δένουμε	δενόμαστε
δένετε	δενόσαστε
δένουν	δένονται

Aorist (tie)

Active	Passive
δέσω	δεθώ
δέσεις	δεθείς
δέσει	δεθεί
δέσουμε	δεθούμε
δέσετε	δεθείτε
δέσουν	δεθούν

Perfect (tie)

Active	Passive
έχω δέσει	έχω δεθεί
έχεις δέσει	έχεις δεθεί
έχει δέσει	έχει δεθεί
έχουμε δέσει	έχουμε δεθεί
έχετε δέσει	έχετε δεθεί
έχουν δέσει	έχουν δεθεί


There are no separate modern Greek forms of the continuous present and the simple Present tenses.


2nd Conjugation Active (Group 1)

The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which, in the classical language, were contracted forms of the 1st Conjugation. They are divided into two groups based on how the endings are contracted. Verbs of both groups form the aorist stems in the same way:

Present Stem	Aorist Stem	Aorist Passive Stem
αγαπ-	αγαπ - ησ �-	αγαπ - η- θ

See Verb Endings for variations in the endings.

 Forms Based on the Present Stem αγαπ- the verb most commonly used as an example for this group is αγαπώ (love)

Present

αγαπώ	I love/I am loving
αγαπάς	you (sing.) love
αγαπά	he/she/it loves
αγαπούμε	we love
αγαπάτε	you (pl.) love
αγαπούν	they love

Continuous Future

θα αγαπώ	I will be loving
θα αγαπάς	you (sing.) will be loving
θα αγαπά	he/she/it will be loving
θα αγαπούμε	we will be loving
θα αγαπάτε	you (pl.) will be loving
θα αγαπούν	they will be loving

Imperfect

αγαπούσα	I was loving/I used to love
αγαπούσες	you (sing.) were loving
αγαπούσε	he/she/it was loving
αγαπούσαμε	we were loving
αγαπούσατε	you (pl.) were loving
αγαπούσαν	they were loving

Imperative

αγάπα	love (sing.)
αγαπάτε	love (pl.)

Present Participle

αγαπώντας	loving

 Forms Based on the Aorist Stem αγαπήσ-

Future

θα αγαπήσω	I will love
θα αγαπήσεις	you (sing.) will love
θα αγαπήσει	he/she/it will love
θα αγαπήσουμε	we will love
θα αγαπήσετε	you (pl.) will love
θα αγαπήσουν	they will love

Aorist

αγάπησα	I loved
αγάπησες	you (sing.) loved
αγαπήσε	he/she/it loved
αγαπήσαμε	we loved
αγαπήσατε	you (pl.) loved
αγάπησαν	they loved

Perfect

έχω αγαπήσει	I have loved
έχεις αγαπήσει	you (sing.) have loved
έχει αγαπήσει	he/she/it has loved
έχουμε αγαπήσει	we have loved
έχετε αγαπήσει	you (pl.) have loved
έχουν αγαπήσει	they have loved

Pluperfect

είχα αγαπήσει	I had loved
είχες αγαπήσει	you (sing.) had loved
είχε αγαπήσει	he/she/it had loved
είχαμε αγαπήσει	we had loved
είχατε αγαπήσει	you (pl.) had loved
είχαν αγαπήσει	they had loved

Future Perfect

θα έχω αγαπήσει	I will have loved
θα έχεις αγαπήσει	you (sing.) will have loved
θα έχει αγαπήσει	he/she/it will have loved
θα έχουμε αγαπήσει	we will have loved
θα έχετε αγαπήσει	you (pl.) will have loved
θα έχουν αγαπήσει	they will have loved

Aorist Imperative

αγάπησε	love (sing.)
αγαπήστε	love (pl.)


Variant Forms of the 2nd Conjugation (Group 1)

The following forms of the Present Tense are also found:

αγαπάω	I love/I am loving
αγαπάς	you (sing.) love
αγαπάει	he/she/it loves
αγαπάμε	we love
αγαπάτε	you (pl.) love
αγαπάν(ε)	they love
These endings are more colloquial and can be used with most verbs of this category as well as in all circumstances for the following verbs:

κοιτάω	I look at
πάω	I go
σκάω	I burst
σπάω	I break
φάω	I eat
φυλάω	I keep


Variant Forms of the 2nd Conjugation (Group 1)

The following forms of the Imperfect Tense are also found:

Imperfect

αγάπαγα	I was loving/I used to love
αγάπαγες	you (sing.) were loving
αγάπαγε	he/she/it was loving
αγαπάγαμε	we were loving
αγαπάγατε	you (pl.) were loving
αγάπαγαν(ε)	they were loving
These endings are more colloquial and can be used with most verbs of this category as well as in all circumstances for the following verbs:

σκάω	I burst
σπάω	I break
φυλάω	I keep


2nd Conjugation Passive (Group 1)

2nd Conjugation Passive (Group 1) (also see Active Indicative or Subjunctive)

The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which, in the classical language, were contracted forms of the 1st Conjugation. They are divided into two groups based on how the endings are contracted. Verbs of both groups form the aorist stems in the same way:

Present Stem	Aorist Stem	Aorist Passive Stem
αγαπ-	αγαπ - ησ �-	αγαπ - η  θ

See Verb Endings for variations in the endings. The verb most commonly used as an example for this group is αγαπώ (love).

 Passive Forms Based on the Present Stem αγαπ-

Present

αγαπιέμαι	I am loved/I am being loved
αγαπιέσαι	you (sing.) are loved
αγαπιέται	he/she/it are loved
αγαπιόμαστε	we are loved
αγαπιέστε	you (pl.) are loved
αγαπιούνται	they are loved

Continuous Future

θα αγαπιέμαι	I will be loved
θα αγαπιέσαι	you (sing.) will be loved
θα αγαπιέται	he/she/it will be loved
θα αγαπιόμαστε	we will be loved
θα αγαπιέστε	you (pl.) will be loved
θα αγαπιούνται	they will be loved

Imperfect

αγαπιόμουν	I was being loved/I used to be loved
αγαπιόσουν	you (sing.) were being loved
αγαπιόταν	he/she/it was being loved
αγαπιόμαστε	we were being loved
αγαπιόσαστε	you (pl.) were being loved
αγαπιόνταν	they were being loved

Imperative

not used

 Passive Forms Based on the Aorist Stem αγαπήθ-

Future

θα αγαπηθώ	I will be loved
θα αγαπηθείς	you (sing.) will be loved
θα αγαπηθεί	he/she/it will be loved
θα αγαπηθούμε	we will be loved
θα αγαπηθείτε	you (pl.) will be loved
θα αγαπηθούν	they will be loved

Aorist

αγαπήθηκα	I was loved
αγαπήθηκες	you (sing.) were loved
αγαπήθηκε	he/she/it was loved
αγαπηθήκαμε	we were loved
αγαπηθήκατε	you (pl.) were loved
αγαπήθηκαν	they were loved

Perfect

έχω αγαπηθεί	I have been loved
έχεις αγαπηθεί	you (sing.) have been loved
έχει αγαπηθεί	he/she/it has been loved
έχουμε αγαπηθεί	we have been loved
έχετε αγαπηθεί	you (pl.) have been loved
έχουν αγαπηθεί	they have been loved

Pluperfect

είχα αγαπηθεί	I had been loved
είχες αγαπηθεί	you (sing.) had been loved
είχε αγαπηθεί	he/she/it had been loved
είχαμε αγαπηθεί	we had been loved
είχατε αγαπηθεί	you (pl.) had been loved
είχαν αγαπηθεί	they had been loved

Future Perfect

θα έχω αγαπηθεί	I will have been loved
θα έχεις αγαπηθεί	you (sing.) will have been loved
θα έχει αγαπηθεί	he/she/it will have been loved
θα έχουμε αγαπηθεί	we will have been loved
θα έχετε αγαπηθεί	you (pl.) will have been loved
θα έχουν αγαπηθεί	they will have been loved

Aorist Imperative

αγαπήσου	be loved (sing.)
αγαπηθείτε	be loved (pl.)

Perfect Participle

αγαπημένος	having been loved


2nd Conjugation Subjunctive (Group 1)

2nd Conjugation Subjunctive (Group 1) (also see Active Indicative or Passive Indicative)

The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which in the classical language were contracted forms of the 1st Conjugation. They are divided into 2 groups based on how the endings are contracted.

Verbs of both groups form the aorist stems in the same way:

Present Stem	Aorist Stem	Aorist Passive Stem
αγαπ-	αγαπ - ησ �-	αγαπ - η  θ

The subjunctive is most commonly used in subordinate clauses after particles like θα‚ να‚ ας‚ and after the negative μη. In form the subjunctive is identical to the indicative. See Verb Endings for variations in the endings.

The verb most commonly used as an example of group 1 verbs is αγαπώ (love).

Present

Active	Passive
αγαπώ	αγαπιέμαι
αγαπάς	αγαπιέσαι
αγαπά	αγαπιέται
αγαπούμε	αγαπιόμαστε
αγαπάτε	αγαπιέστε
αγαπούν	αγαπιούνται

Aorist

Active	Passive
αγαπήσω	αγαπήθώ
αγαπήσεις	αγαπηθείς
αγαπήσει	αγαπηθεί
αγαπήσουμε	αγαπηθούμε
αγαπήσετε	αγαπηθείτε
αγαπήσουν	αγαπηθούν

Perfect

Active	Passive
έχω αγαπήσει	έχω αγαπηθεί
έχεις αγαπήσει	έχεις αγαπηθεί
έχει αγαπήσει	έχει αγαπηθεί
έχουμε αγαπήσει	έχουμε αγαπηθεί
έχετε αγαπήσει	έχετε αγαπηθεί
έχουν αγαπήσει	έχουν αγαπηθεί


Ancient Greek verbs of the 1st Conjugation whose stems ended in -α�-‚ -ε- or -ο�- were contracted in the Attic dialect -- the final vowel of the stem contracted with the first vowel of the ending: ποι - έ - ομεν >> ποι ��- ου �- μεν

In Modern Greek, there are only two types of contracted verbs: those ending in -α- and those ending in -ε-. The differences between the 2nd Conjugation and the 1st Conjugation are explicable in terms of these contractions.


There are a number of Deponent Verbs which are assigned to the 2nd Conjugation but which differ from Group 1 and Group 2 verbs in the way in which they add the ending to the stem for the Present Tense and tenses based on the present:

θυμάμαι/θυμούμαι	I remember
θυμάσαι	you (sing.) remember
θυμάται	he/she/it remembers
θυμόμαστε	we remember
θυμάστε/θυμόσαστε	you (pl.) remember
θυμούνται	they remember
Other common verbs which belong to this group are: κοιμάμαι (I sleep)‚ λυπάμαι (I am sorry) and φοβάμαι (I am afraid).


The Verb Stem is the basic part of the verb to which the endings are added. Most verbs have three stems:

 Present Stem

The part of the verb which is used to form the present, continuous future and imperfect tenses.

δεν - ω

κρυβ - ω

αγαπ - ώ

 Aorist Stem

The part of the verb which is used to form the aorist, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses of the active and the active infinitive. The easiest way to isolate it in practice is to remove the aorist endings from the aorist tense and any temporal augment:

έ - δεσ - α

έ - κρυψ - α

αγαπησ - α

 Aorist Passive Stem

The part of the verb which is used to form the passive forms of the aorist, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses:

δέθ -� ηκα

κρύφτ - ηκα

αγαπήθ - ηκα


2nd Conjugation Active (Group 2)

2nd Conjugation Active (Group 2) (also see Passive Indicative and/or Subjunctive)

The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which, in the classical language, were contracted forms of the 1st Conjugation. They are divided into two groups based on how the endings are contracted. Verbs of both groups form the aorist stems in the same way:

Present Stem	Aorist Stem	Aorist Passive Stem
φιλ -	φιλ - ησ �-	φιλ - η- θ-

See Verb Endings for variations in the endings. The example verb used for this group is φιλώ (kiss) because it has both active and passive forms. Please note that these verbs differ from verbs in the first group only in the present and imperative.

 Forms Based on the Present Stem φιλ-

Present

φιλω	I kiss/I am kissing
φιλείς	you (sing.) kiss
φιλεί	he/she/it kisses
φιλούμε	we kiss
φιλείτε	you (pl.) kiss
φιλούν	they kiss

Continuous Future

θα φιλώ	I will be kissing
θα φιλείς	you (sing.) will be kissing
θα φιλεί	he/she/it will be kissing
θα φιλούμε	we will be kissing
θα φιλείτε	you (pl.) will be kissing
θα φιλούν	they will be kissing

Imperfect

φιλούσα	I was kissing/I used to kiss
φιλούσες	you (sing.) were kissing
φιλούσε	he/she/it was kissing
φιλούσαμε	we were kissing
φιλούσατε	you (pl.) were kissing
φιλούσαν	they were kissing

Imperative

φίλει	kiss (sing.)
φιλείτε	kiss (pl.)

Present Participle

φιλώντας	kissing

 Forms Based on the Aorist Atem φιλησ-

Future

θα φιλήσω	I will kiss
θα φιλήσεις	you (sing.) will kiss
θα φιλήσει	he/she/it will kiss
θα φιλήσουμε	we will kiss
θα φιλήσετε	you (pl.) will kiss
θα φιλήσουν	they will kiss

Aorist

φίλησα	I kissed
φίλησες	you (sing.) kissed
φίλησε	he/she/it kissed
φιλήσαμε	we kissed
φιλήσατε	you (pl.) kissed
φίλησαν	they kissed

Perfect

έχω φιλήσει	I have kissed
έχεις φιλήσει	you (sing.) have kissed
έχει φιλήσει	he/she/it has kissed
έχουμε φιλήσει	we have kissed
έχετε φιλήσει	you (pl.) have kissed
έχουν φιλήσει	they have kissed

Pluperfect

είχα φιλήσει	I had kissed
είχες φιλήσει	you (sing.) had kissed
είχε φιλήσει	he/she/it had kissed
είχαμε φιλήσει	we had kissed
είχατε φιλήσει	you (pl.) had kissed
είχαν φιλήσει	they had kissed

Future Perfect

θα έχω φιλήσει	I will have kissed
θα έχεις φιλήσει	you (sing.) will have kissed
θα έχει φιλήσει	he/she/it will have kissed
θα έχουμε φιλήσει	we will have kissed
θα έχετε φιλήσει	you (pl.) will have kissed
θα έχουν φιλήσει	they will have kissed

Aorist Imperative

φίλησε	kiss (sing.)
φιλήστε	kiss (pl.)


2nd Conjugation Passive (Group 2)

The 2nd Conjugation Passive (Group 2)

The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which, in the classical language, were contracted forms of the 1st Conjugation. They are divided into two groups based on how the endings are contracted. Verbs of both groups form the aorist stems in the same way:

Present Stem	Aorist Stem	Aorist Passive Stem
φιλ -	φιλ - ησ �-	φιλ - η- θ -

See Verb Endings for variations in the endings.

The example verb used for this group is φιλώ (kiss) because it has active and passive forms. Please note that these verbs differ from verbs in the first group only in the present and imperative.

 Forms Based on the Present Stem φιλ-

Present

φιλούμαι	I am kissed/I am kissing
φιλείσαι	you (sing.)are kissed
φιλείται	he/she/it is kissed
φιλούμαστε	we are kissed
φιλείστε	you (pl.) are kissed
φιλούνται	they are kissed

Continuous Future

θα φιλούμαι	I will be kissing
θα φιλείσαι	you (sing.) will be kissing
θα φιλείται	he/she/it will be kissing
θα φιλούμαστε	we will be kissing
θα φιλείστε	you (pl.) will be kissing
θα φιλούνται	they will be kissing

Imperfect

φιλούμουν	I was being kissed/I used to be kissed
φιλούσουν	you (sing.) were being kissed
φιλούνταν	he/she/it was being kissed
φιλούμαστε	we were being kissed
φιλούσασταν	you (pl.) were being kissed
φιλούνταν	they were being kissed

Imperative

not found

 Passive Forms Based on the Aorist Stem φιληθ-

Future

θα φιληθώ	I will be kissed
θα φιληθείς	you (sing.) will be kissed
θα φιληθεί	he/she/it will be kissed
θα φιληθούμε	we will be kissed
θα φιληθείτε	you (pl.) will be kissed
θα φιληθούν	they will be kissed

Aorist

φιλήθηκα	I was kissed
φιλήθηκες	you (sing.) were kissed
φιλήθηκε	he/she/it was kissed
φιληθήκαμε	we were kissed
φιληθήκατε	you (pl.) were kissed
φιλήθηκαν	they were kissed

Perfect

έχω φιληθεί	I have been kissed
έχεις φιληθεί	you (sing.) have been kissed
έχει φιληθεί	he/she/it has been kissed
έχουμε φιληθεί	we have been kissed
έχετε φιληθεί	you (pl.) have been kissed
έχουν φιληθεί	they have been kissed

Pluperfect

είχα φιληθεί	I had been kissed
είχες φιληθεί	you (sing.) had been kissed
είχε φιληθεί	he/she/it had been kissed
είχαμε φιληθεί	we had been kissed
είχατε φιληθεί	you (pl.) had been kissed
είχαν φιληθεί	they had been kissed

Future Perfect

θα έχω φιληθεί	I will have been kissed
θα έχεις φιληθεί	you (sing.) will have been kissed
θα έχει φιληθεί	he/she/it will have been kissed
θα έχουμε φιληθεί	we will have been kissed
θα έχετε φιληθεί	you (pl.) will have been kissed
θα έχουν φιληθεί	they will have been kissed

Aorist Imperative

φιλήσου	be kissed (sing.)
φιληθείτε	be kissed (pl.)

Perfect Participle

φιλημένος	having been kissed


The imperfect passive of verbs of this type is not normally used and is given here for the sake of completeness. There are variant forms which the novice need not worry about.


Finite refers to any form of the verb which is inflected for grammatical features such as person, number and tense.

Infinite refers to the other forms of the verb which cannot have all these grammatical features.


2nd Conjugation Subjunctive (Group 2)

The 2nd Conjugation Subjunctive (Group 2)

The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which, in the classical language, were contracted forms of the 1st Conjugation. They are divided into two groups based on how the endings are contracted. Verbs of both groups form the aorist stems in the same way:

Present Stem	Aorist Stem	Aorist Passive Stem
φιλ -	φιλ - ησ �-	φιλ - η- θ -

The subjunctive is most commonly used in subordinate clauses after particles like θα‚ να and ας and after the negative μη. In form, the subjunctive is identical to the indicative. See Verb Endings for variations in the endings.

The example verb used for this group is φιλώ (kiss) because it has active and passive forms. Please note that these verbs differ from verbs in the first group only in the present.

 Forms Based on the Present Stem φιλ-

Present

Active	Passive
φιλώ	φιλούμαι
φιλείς	φιλείσαι
φιλεί	φιλείται
φιλούμε	φιλούμαστε
φιλείτε	φιλείστε
φιλούν	φιλούνται

Aorist

Active	Passive
φιλήσω	φιλήθώ
φιλήσεις	φιληθείς
φιλήσει	φιληθεί
φιλήσουμε	φιληθούμε
φιλήσετε	φιληθείτε
φιλήσουν	φιληθούν

Perfect

Active	Passive
έχω φιλήσει	έχω φιληθεί
έχεις φιλήσει	έχεις φιληθεί
έχει φιλήσει	έχει φιληθεί
έχουμε φιλήσει	έχουμε φιληθεί
έχετε φιλήσει	έχετε φιληθεί
έχουν φιλήσει	έχουν φιληθεί


Irregular Verbs

Irregular Verbs (also see Verbs)

In one sense there are many irregular Greek verbs because many commonly used verbs fail in one way or another to follow the regular patterns for the two conjugations. However, most verbs which are called irregular are simply irregular because they do not have certain tenses or because certain tenses are supplied by different verbs. In many languages these are called "defective" verbs. The most common irregular Greek verb is, as with most European languages, the verb "to be".

είμαι	I am
έχω	I have
ακούω	I hear
καίω	I burn
λέγω	I say
πάω	I go

Also see Verb Endings for possible variations in the endings and Common Verbs with Irregular Principal Parts for a list.

There are a few verbs which do not belong to the 1st or 2nd conjugations but are simply survivors from the ancient language which were used in Katharevousa but are still encountered today.


An irregular verb is one which does not follow the normal patterns of the two conjugations for adding its endings.


Verb to be

είμαι -- to be (return to Verbs)

The verb to be, because of its meaning, does not take a direct object and does not have passive forms. Although the most commonly used verb in the language, it has a very limited range of forms:

Present

Indicative	Subjunctive
είμαι	είμαι
είσαι	είσαι
είναι	είναι
είμαστε	είμαστε
είστε	είστε
είναι	είναι

Imperfect

ήμουν
ήσουν
ήταν
ήμαστε
ήσαστε
ήταν

Future

θα είμαι
θα είσαι
θα είναι
θα είμαστε
θα είστε
θα είναι

Present Participle

όντας	being


Verb to have

έχω -- to have (return to Verbs)

The verb to have, aside from its normal meaning, is also used as an auxiliary verb to form the periphrastic tenses. Although έχω is a very common verb, it has a very limited range of forms.

Present

Indicative	Subjunctive
έχω	έχω
έχεις	έχεις
έχει	έχει
έχουμε	έχουμε
έχετε	έχετε
έχουν	έχουμε

Imperfect

είχα
είχες
είχε
είχαμε
είχατε
είχαν

Future

θα έχω
θα έχεις
θα έχει
θα έχουμε
θα έχετε
θα έχουν

Imperative

έχε (sing.)
έχετε (pl.)

Present Participle

έχοντας


Verb to hear

ακούω -- to hear (return to Verbs)

Some verbs whose stems end in vowels absorb the vowel part of the endings of the present, subjunctive and imperative active endings. Depending on the ending of the stem, the contractions will vary. In this example, the verb ακούω (hear) is used.

The following forms differ from the normal 1st Conjugation ones:

Present

Indicative	Subjunctive
ακούω	ακούω
ακούς	ακούς
ακούει	ακούει
ακούμε	ακούμε
ακούν	ακούν

Imperative

άκου (sing.)
ακούτε (pl.)


Verb to burn

καίω -- to burn (return to Verbs)

Some verbs whose stems end in vowels absorb the vowel part of the endings of the present, subjunctive and imperative endings active. Depending on the ending of the stem, the contractions will vary. In this example, the verb καίω (burn) is used.

The following forms differ from the normal 1st Conjugation ones. Also note that the -αι of the stem is separated from the identical sound -ε- (of certain endings) by a γ:

Present Active

Indicative	Subjunctive
καίω	καίω
καις	καις
καίει	καίει
καίμε	καίμε
καίτε	καίτε
καίν	καίν

Imperfect

έκαιγα
έκαιγες
έκαιγε
καίγαμε
καίγατε
έκαιγαν

Imperative

καίγε (sing.)
καίτε (pl.)


Verb to say

λέγω -- to say (return to Verbs)

The verbs λέγω (say), τρώγω (eat) and φυλάγω (guard) drop the γ in the present and consequently fall into the category of a contracted verb.

The following forms differ from the normal 1st Conjugation ones. The present subjunctive is not provided since it is identical in form to the indicative:

Present

λέω	τρώω	φυλάω
λες	τρως	φυλάς
λέει	τρώει	φυλάει
λέμε	τρώμε	φυλάμε
λέτε	τρώτε	φυλάτε
λένε	τρώνε	φυλάνε

Imperative

λέγε (sing.)	τρώγε	φύλαγε
λέτε (pl.)	τρώτε	φύλατε


Verb to go

πάω -- to go (return to Verbs)

Some verbs whose stems end in vowels absorb the vowel part of the endings of the present, subjunctive and imperative active endings. Depending on the ending of the stem, the contractions will vary.

The verb πάω (go) is also used as the aorist subjunctive of the verb πηγαίνω (go) which, in turn, provides it with its imperative forms.

The following forms differ from the normal 1st Conjugation ones.

Present

πάω
πας
πάει
πάμε
πάτε
πάνε

Imperative

πήγαινε (sing.)
πηγαίνετε (pl.)

Note that θα φάω, the future form used for τρώγω (eat) also conjugates like πάω.


  Irregular Verbs (return to Verbs)

There are many Greek verbs whose aorist is irregular in some way or other. The following are the most common irregular Greek verbs:

English	Present	Aorist	Aorist Stem
please	αρέσω	άρεσα	αρεσ -
put	βάζω	έβαλα	βαλ -
go out	βγαίνω	βγήκα	βγ-
see	βλέπω,	είδα	δ
find	βρίσκω	βρήκα	βρ
come	έρχομαι	ήρθα	ερθ -
want	θέλω	ήθελα	θελ -
do	κάνω	έκανα	καν -
understand	καταλαβαίνω	κατάλαβα	καταλαβ -
say	λέγω	είπα	π
know	ξέρω	ήξερα	ξερ -
take	λαβαίνω	έλαβα	λαβ -
learn	μαθαίνω	έμαθα	μαθ -
wait	μένω	έμεινα	μειν -
enter	μπαίνω	μπήκα	μπ -
suffer	παθαίνω	έπαθα	παθ -
take	παίρνω	πήρα	παρ -
wait for	περιμένω	περίμενα	περιμεν -
go	πηγαίνω	πήγα	π -
drink	πίνω	ήπια	πι -
must	πρέπει	έπρεπε	πρεπ -
send	στέλνω	έστειλα	στειλ -
eat	τρώγω	έφαγα	φ -
happen	τυχαίνω	έτυχα	τυχ -
bring	φέρνω	έφερα	φερ -
flee	φεύγω	έφυγα	φυγ -


Some verbs, such as:

βγαίνω

βλέπω

βρίσκω

λέγω

μπαίνω

πηγαίνω

πίνω

form the aorist subjunctive by adding the following endings directly to their aorist stems:

-ω

-εις

-ει

-ουμε

-ειτε

-ουν(ε)


There are a very few verbs (used mainly in formal speech) which follow the ancient 2nd Conjugation paradigm in the present tense:

εγγυώμαι (I guarantee)

εγγυάσαι

εγγυάται

εγγυώμεθα/εγγυάστε

εγγυάσθε/εγγυάστε

εγγυώνται

Other verbs of this type are εξαρτώμαι (depend), διερωτώμαι (wonder) and διασπώμαι (split). There are also other verbs which follow divergent ancient conjugations but the novice can ignore them.


Modern Greek does not have a proper infinitive form as in the classical language. The so-called infinitive (απαρέμφατο) is a form of the verb derived from the aorist stems used to form other tenses. There is an active and a passive form:

	Aorist	Infinitive
Active	έ - δεσ - α	δέσ - ει
Passive	δέθ - ηκα	δεθ - εί


Participles

Greek has two common participles: present active and perfect passive.

The present active is an indeclinable word formed by adding -οντας to the stem of 1st Conjugation verbs and -ώντας to the stem of 2nd Conjugation verbs:

δένω	δένοντας	tying
βλέπω	βλέποντας	seeing
τρέχω	τρέχοντας	running

The perfect passive participle has the ending -μένος. This declines as a 1st & 2nd Declension Adjective. It is not easy to predict how the ending is attached to the verb and the novice is best advised to learn each one as required:

δένω	δεμένος	tied
κρύβω	κρυμμένος	hidden
φορτώνω	φορτωμένος	loaded
παίρνω	παρμένος	taken

In addition to the normal participles, there is sometimes a present passive participle. This is only used for middle verbs or verbs of Katharevousa origin. Again, the novice should only deal with them as required:

εργάζομαι	εργαζόμενος	working
έρχομαι	ερχόμενος	coming


Example of a verb expressing an action is "The boy kicks the ball".


An example of a verb expressing an occurrence is "The soldier died of his wounds".


An example of a verb which expresses a state of being is "The boy is sleeping under the tree".


The person of a verb indicates who is accomplishing the action of the verb. There are three persons with a singular and a plural form:

	Singular	Plural
1st Person	I	we
2nd Person	you	you
3rd Person	he/she/it	they
As in French, for example, the second person plural is also used as a polite second person form even when only one person is being referred to:

Τί θα θέλατε‚ κύριε:

= What would you like, sir?

Because of changes in Greek society, the polite second person plural is being used less frequently, especially by the young.


Tense

  Tense (also see Verbs and/or Aspect)

The tense of a verb indicates when the action of the verb takes place.

Greek has two forms of tenses: those formed by simply changing the ending and periphrastic tenses made up of one or more auxiliaries plus a form of the verb.

There are two separate forms of the future, a continuous future and a simple future. Here, the future is the simple future unless otherwise indicated. There are no separate forms for the continuous and simple present.

For the imperfect and aorist a temporal argument is sometimes used to indicated the past tense: the letter ε- used as a prefix. As a rule this is only used when the verb has two syllables or has a particular prefix.

The perfect, pluperfect and future perfect are all periphrastic tenses which use a form of the verb sometimes called the infinitive. This is formed by adding -ει to the aorist stem, for example:

Present	Aorist Stem	Infinitive
δένω	δεσ -	δεσει

The indicative has eight tenses:

Active

Present	δένω	I tie/I am tying
Imperfect	έδενα	I was tying
Aorist	έδεσα	I tied
Continuous Future	θα δένω	I will be tying
Simple Future	θα δέσω	I will tie
Perfect	έχω δέσει	I have tied
Pluperfect	είχα δέσει	I had tied
Future Perfect	θα έχω δέσει	I will have tied
Passive

Present	δένομαι	I am tied/I am being tied
Imperfect	δενόμουν	I was being tied
Aorist	δέθηκα	I was tied
Continuous Future	θα δένομαι	I will be tied
Simple Future	θα δεθώ	I will be tied
Perfect	έχω δεθεί	I have been tied
Pluperfect	είχα δεθεί	I had been tied
Future Perfect	θα έχω δεθεί	I will have been tied


This tense adds the ending to the present stem.


This tense adds the ending to the aorist active stem.


This tense adds the endings to the aorist passive stem.


The aorist passive uses the letters -ηκ- to add the endings to the aorist passive stem: δεθ - ηκ - α


This is the so-called active infinitive and does not change.


This is the so-called passive infinitive and does not change.


An auxiliary is a word used to help in the formation of another word. There are two auxiliary verbs -- έχω (have) and είμαι (am) -- and one auxiliary particle (θα) used to indicate the future.


Continuous & Simple Tenses

In English we can say "I read a book" or "I am reading a book".

In the first sentence, the verb is used in its simple present form to simply state the action of the verb. In the second sentence, the continuous present is used to state that the action of the verb is taking place and is still continuing.

Consider the sentences "I will obey the law" and "I will be obeying the law".

The first sentence uses the simple future is to state the action of the verb. The second sentence uses the continuous future to state that the action of the verb will take place and will continue to take place.


The temporal augment is so named because it increases (augments) the length of the verb to indicate past tense (Latin = tempus, time).


Rules for the Temporal Augment

In the classical language, all verbs had some form of temporal augment to indicate past tense. In the modern language, its application is more restricted. A verb will have a temporal augment in the imperfect and aorist only if:

 it has two syllables in the present

 it begins with a consonant, and

 the augment would receive the accent

λύνω	έλυνα	έλυσα
γράφω	έγραφα	έγραψα

Compound verbs with a prefix have an internal augment if the prefix is δια‚ εκ‚ εν or συν and the augment would have the accent:

εκφράζω	εξέφραζα	εξέφρασα	but	εκφράσαμε
διακρίνω	διέκρινα	διέκρινα	but	διακρίνατε
συμβαίνει	συνέβαινει	συνέβη

There are a number of common verbs whose augment is not ε-:

βλέπω	έβλεπα	είδα
έρχομαι	ερχόμουνα	ήρθα
έχω		είχα
θέλω	ήθελα	θέλησα
λέω	έλεγα	είπα
ξέρω		ήξερα
πίνω	έπινα	ήπια
υπάρχω	υπήρχα	υπήρξα

There are also some common verbs which do not take an augment:

βρίσκω		βρήκα
παίρνω		πήρα
πηγαίνω		πήγα


The Voice of a verb indicates whether the subject of the verb is acting or being acted upon, that is, whether the verb is active or passive:

Active	The soldiers attack the city.
Passive	The city is attacked by the soldiers.
Greek also has a third voice called the middle which uses the passive endings but has an active meaning with some sort of reference back to the subject:

Middle	Ετοιμάζομαι για δουλειά.
	= I get ready for work (i.e. I get myself ready).
The novice need not worry too much about the middle because only a few verbs are commonly used in this way and it is easiest to learn them as they are encountered.


The aorist tense is the simple past tense as in:

I saw you in the market.

The girl sang beautifully.

We supported the winning side.

It is called aorist because, in many circumstances (e.g. in the subjunctive), it is indefinite in tense.


  Mood

The mood of a verb is the form of the verb used to indicate certain differences in the manner of the action of a verb. There are three moods:

 indicative

 imperative

 subjunctive

1 The indicative mood is used to state a fact or ask a question:

The cat sat on the mat.

Where is the cat?

2 The imperative mood is used to issue a command or make a request:

Come here!

Please give it to me.

In Greek, the imperative is formed by adding the endings -ε (sing.) or -ετε (pl.) to the present or aorist stems.

3 In Greek, the subjunctive mood is used in many subordinate clauses. It is also used to express doubt, a wish, a belief or improbability. Before 1976, the subjunctive had different endings from the indicative but since then, the subjunctive endings have been identical with the indicative endings and the subjunctive is only identified by its function in a sentence rather than its spelling.


Some grammars categorize the infinitive and participle as moods.


The Old Subjunctive Endings

You will come across the old subjunctive endings in books published before 1976:

- ω

- ης

- η

- ωμε

- ετε

- ουν

Note that these differ in spelling from the indicative only in three instances but all six were pronounced the same as their indicative counterparts.


Essentially, a verb is:

 transitive if it has a direct object:

I praise him

They see the ship

 intransitive if it does not have a direct object:

He is standing

We are working

In Greek, many verbs can be used transitively or intransitively, much more so than in English:

Θα σε πάω στο σινεμά.

= I will take you to the movies. (transitive)

Πάω στο σινεμά.

= I am going to the movies. (intransitive)

Σταμάτησε το ρολόι.

= He stopped the clock. (transitive)

Σταμάτησε το ρολόι.

= The clock stopped. (intransitive)


Conjugation is the term given to a group of verbs which form their endings in the same way. In the classical language, there were two conjugations for verbs ending in -ω or -μι. In modern Greek, the two conjugations are for verbs in -ω or -ώ. The 2nd Conjugation contains verbs which belonged to the 1st Conjugation in Ancient Greek and whose stems ended in the vowels -α-‚ -ε- and -ο-.


Such verbs are called deponent because they have put aside (deponere) their active forms.


The Particle THA

The Particle ΘΑ

Although the particle θα is usually associated with the future tense, in itself it has nothing to do with the future and can be used with other parts of the verb in a variety of ways. The main uses of the particle are θα plus:

1 the present subjunctive forms the continuous future:

΄Οταν είμαι στην Αθήνα θα μένω στου Γιάννη.

= When I am in Athens I will be staying at Yannis'.

2 the aorist subjunctive forms the simple future:

΄Οταν είμαι στην Αθήνα θα σου στείλω ένα καρτ-ποστάλ.

= When I am in Athens I will send you a postcard.

3 the perfect indicative form the future perfect:

΄Οταν φτάσεις στην Αθήνα θα έχω φύγει για τους Δελφούς.

= When you reach Athens I will have left for Delphi.

4 the imperfect indicative gives the verb a conditional meaning referring to the past, present or future:

Αν ήμουν στην Αθήνα θα έμενα στου Γιάννη.

= If I were in Athens, I would stay at Yannis'.

= If I were in Athens (now), I would be staying at Yannis'.

= If had been in Athens, I would have stayed at Yannis'.

5 the imperfect indicative makes a polite request or tentative statement:

Στην Αθήνα θα ήθελα να μείνω στου Γιάννη.

= In Athens I would like to stay at Yannis'.

Θα ήθελα ένα Ελληνικό σχέτο.

= I would like a Greek coffee with no sugar.

6 the pluperfect indicative gives the verb a conditional meaning referring to the past:

Αν ήμουν στην Αθήνα θα είχα μείνει στου Γιάννη.

= Had I been in Athens I would have stayed at Yannis'.

7 the aorist indicative gives the verb an inferential meaning:

Αν ήσουν στην Αθήνα θα έμεινες στου Γιάννη.

= If you were in Athens, you (must have) stayed at Yannis'.


The word θα is an end product of a long evolution. By the beginning of the first millennium AD, the pure future forms of the verb were being gradually replaced by phrases such as θέλω ίνα + the subjunctive (I want/I wish/in order to...). This developed into θέλω να, then, into θε να and, finally, into the present form θα.


Since θα + the imperfect indicative can refer to the past, present or future, it is only the context which will determine what time is being referred to and how the sentence should be interpreted.


Since the normal conditional form of θα + the imperfect can refer to past, present or future, the pluperfect can be used (if necessary or desired) to make it perfectly clear that reference is being made to the past.


for example, the speaker or writer is making an inference about what must be the case.


In order to say "at the house of" (French = chez) in the normal Greek idiom, use σ plus the genitive of the name of the person. In this construction, the word for "house" is implied:

στου Γιάννη �= σε του Γιάννη (το σπίτι)

= at the house of Yannis

= at Yannis'


The Conditional Mood

The Conditional Mood (also see The Verb)

Greek does not have a verb form which, by itself, expresses condition but the particle θα(used with other parts of the verb) can be used to create periphrastic conditional forms:

Αν ήμουν στην Αθήνα θα έμενα στου Γιάννη.

= If I were in Athens, I would stay at Yannis'.

Αν με ρώτησες θα σου είχα πει.

= If you had asked me, I would have told you.


The Particle NA

The Particle ΝΑ (also see The Verb)

The word να is a modal auxiliary particle whose only function is to be used with the verb, the most common of which is to create a sort of infinitive. The negative is always μην. Some of the functions of να are covered in more detail elsewhere. The following is merely a summary of its main uses.

 To form imperatives:

Να στρίψετε δεξιά.

= Turn right.

Να πάμε στο σινεμά.

= Let's go to the cinema.

Να μην έρθει ο Αντώνης.

= Don't let Andonis come.

 To form deliberative questions:

Τί να κάνουμε;

= What are we to do?

Τί να κάναμε;

= What should we have done?

 To express questions of a doubtful or hesitant nature:

Πώς να μην την ξέρεις;

= How can you not know her?

Πού να είναι το κλειδί;

= Where can the key be?

 To express wishes:

Να γυρίσω στην Ελλάδα!

= May I return to Greece!

Να ήμαστε μαζί!

= I wish we had been together!

Μακάρι να γυρίσουμε στην Ελλάδα στο μέλλον.

= We wish to return to Greece in the future.

Μακάρι να μην μπήκαμε σ΄ αυτό το μπαρ.

= I wish that we had not gone into that bar.

 To form a surprised exclamation:

Να μην την ξέρεις!

= You don't know her!

 After verbs and phrases of wishing, wanting, ability or necessity:

Θέλουν να φύγουν τώρα.

= They want to leave now

Πρέπει να φύγουν τώρα.

= They must leave now.

Τους συμβούλεψα να φύγουν.

= I advised them to leave.

Προτιμώ να με προειδοποιήσεις.

= I prefer you to warn me.

Θα προτιμούσα να με προειδοποίησες.

= I would have preferred you to warn me.

 To form an indirect command:

Ο αστυφύλακας μου είπε να βγω απ΄ το αυτοκίνητο.

= The policeman told me to get out of the car.

 After verbs of perception:

Δεν άκουσα το κουδούνι να χτυπήσει.

= I didn't hear the bell ring.

 To introduce a condition when there is more emotion involved:

Και να μου ζητούσες συγγνώμη δε θα σε συγχωρούσα.

= Even if you were to ask my forgiveness I would not forgive you.

 After certain adjectives and nouns:

Είστε έτοιμοι να φύγετε;

= Are you ready to leave?

΄Εχει λαχτάρα να μαθαίνει τα Ελληνικά.

= She has a desire to learn Greek.

 To express such things as purpose or result and after certain prepositions:

Σπούδασε πολύ για να γίνει χειρούργος.

= He worked hard to become a surgeon.

Δεν ήταν ίκανος για να γίνει χειρούργος.

= He was not capable of becoming a surgeon.

Ο άγνωστος έφυγε χωρίς να πει κουβέντα.

= The stranger left without saying a word.

Αντί να μου το περιγράψει το σχεδίασε.

= Instead of describing it to me he drew it.

 After conjunctions:

Θα περιμένουμε εδώ εώς να γυρίσετε.

= We will wait here until you return.

Προτιμάνε να πάνε εκδρομή παρά να μείνουν στο σπίτι.

= We prefer to go on a trip rather than stay at home.

 With the relative pronoun to make it more tentative:

Προτιμάνε να πάνε εκδρομή παρά να μείνουν στο σπίτι.

= They prefer to go on a trip rather than stay at home.

 With the definitive article to make a noun phrase:

Το να ξέρεις από τα αρχαία είναι πολύ χρήσιμο.

= To know about the ancient world is very useful.

Το να μην την ξέρεις είναι απίστευτο.

= The fact that you don't know her is unbelievable.

Caution: Don't confuse this word with the demonstrative particle να which is used in exclamations (like voilΰ in French):

Να το Γιάννη!

= There's Yani!

Να είμαι πάλι στην Ελλάδα!

= Here I am back in Greece!


There is a form of the verb which, in some grammars, is called the infinitive, namely απαρέμφατο as used in the perfect tense έχω δέσει. However, from a semantic point of view, when you consider a sentence like:

Θέλω να φύγω

= I want to leave

the phrase να φύγω functions like an infinitive.


It is a small word (particle) used to help (auxiliary) the formation of certain moods (modal) of the verb.


Sometimes the accusative is found in this usage, sometimes the nominative.


  Pronouns

A pronoun is a word which substitutes for a noun or noun phrase and whose reference is known from the context, for example:

They attacked the town.

This is not difficult to do.

Someone is watching us.

Because of their meanings, pronouns do not have vocative forms. There are a number of different types of pronouns:

Personal

Possessive

Reflexive

Demonstrative

Intensive

Relative

Indefinite

Interrogative


Personal Pronouns

  Personal Pronouns (return to Pronouns)

Personal Pronouns are pronouns which represent a particular person or thing (e.g. I, you, he, she, etc.). They are divided into three types:

1st Person	I/we
2nd Person	you (sing.)/you (pl.)
3rd Person	he/she/it/they
1st Person Personal Pronoun (Strong Form)

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	εγώ	I	εμείς	we
Acc.	εμένα	me	εμάς	us
Gen.	εμένα	of/to me	εμάς	of us/to us

1st Person Personal Pronoun (Weak Form)

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	--	--	--	--
Acc.	με	me	μας	us
Gen.	μου	of/to me	μας	of us/to us

2nd Person Personal Pronoun (Strong Form)

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	εσύ	you	εσείς	you
Acc.	εσένα	you	εσάς	you
Gen.	εσένα	of you/to you	εσάς	of you/to you

2nd Person Personal Pronoun (Weak Form)

	Singular	Plural
Nom.	--	--	--	--
Acc.	σε	you	σας	you
Gen.	σου	of you/to you	σας	of you/to you

3rd Person Personal Pronoun (he/she/it) (Strong Form)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	αυτός	αυτή	αυτό
Acc.	αυτόν	αυτή(ν)	αυτό
Gen.	αυτού	αυτής	αυτό
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	αυτοί	αυτές	αυτά
Acc.	αυτούς	αυτές	αυτά
Gen.	αυτών	αυτών	αυτών

3rd Person Personal Pronoun (he/she/it) (Weak Form)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τος	τη	το
Acc.	τον	τη(ν)	το
Gen.	του	της	το
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τοι	τες	τα
Acc.	τους	τις	τα
Gen.	τους	τους	τους
Note:

 The nominative of the personal pronouns are only used when special emphasis is given to them.

 The personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.

 Pronouns do not have a vocative form but the strong form of the 1st and 2nd person can be used in a vocative phrase.

 There is frequent idiomatic use of pronouns when they are used in conjunction with the nouns they refer to. These utilizations are called the proleptic and anaphoric usage.


The Vocative of Personal Pronouns is a moot point with pronouns in such expressions as:

Εσείς παιδιά‚ ελάτε δω.

= Hey kids, come here.

Εσύ Πέτρο‚ τι κάνεις εδώ;

= Hey Petros, what are you doing here?

These could be considered vocative or nominative but the nouns are certainly in the vocative.


 Weak Forms of personal pronouns are the most common. They are the forms normally used when no particular emphasis is being given to the word:

Η μάνα σε φωνάζει.

= Mom is calling you.

Φέρε το.

= Bring it.

Δε μου αρέσει.

= I don't like it.

Τους είδα στο δρόμο.

= I saw them on the road.

 Strong Forms of personal pronouns are used when they are on their own in a sentence or to give emphasis to the pronoun.

Ποιόν διάλεξαν; Εμένα.

= Whom did they choose? Me.

Εσένα θέλω.

= It is you I want.

Το τηλέφωνο δεν ήταν για εμένα.

= The call was not for me.


Nowadays, the Nominative Weak Form of the 3rd Person Personal Pronoun is rarely used in normal speech and is best avoided by the novice.


The Proleptic & Anaphoric Use of Pronouns

It is common to use the personal pronoun in conjunction with the noun to which it refers -- either before or after the noun:

 Proleptic Use

Τη βλέπω τη μητέρα μου.

= I see my mother.

Θα τον ρωτήσω το δάσκαλο.

= I will ask the teacher

 Anaphoric Use

Το Μανώλη τον είδα στο σινεμά

= I saw Manolis in the cinema.


The Reflexive Pronoun

The Reflexive Pronoun (return to Pronouns)

The reflexive pronoun is referred to as such because it reflects back on the subject of the verb, for example:

The boy washes himself.

I am not proud of myself.

Because of the meaning of the pronoun, there are no nominative or vocative forms.

The reflexive pronoun is a phrase made up of the article + an oblique form of the masculine noun εαυτός + the weak form of the personal pronoun.

Because of the meaning of the pronoun, there are no nominative or vocative forms.

The reflexive pronoun is a phrase made up of the article + an oblique form of the masculine noun εαυτός + the weak form of the personal pronoun.

The number, person and gender are indicated by the form of the personal pronoun component:

τον εαυτό μου	myself
του εαυτού της	of herself
τον εαυτό τους	themselves

 1st Person Reflexive Pronoun (myself, ourselves)

Singular

	Masculine/Feminine
Acc.	τον εαυτό μου
Gen.	του εαυτού μου
Plural

	Masculine/Feminine
Acc.	τον εαυτό μας
Gen.	του εαυτού μας

 2nd Person Reflexive Pronoun (yourself, yourselves)

Singular

	Masculine/Feminine
Acc.	τον εαυτό σου
Gen.	του εαυτού σου
Plural

	Masculine/Feminine
Acc.	τον εαυτό σας
Gen.	του εαυτού σας

 3rd Person Reflexive Pronoun (himself, herself, themselves)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Acc.	τον εαυτό του	τον εαυτό της	τουεαυτό του
Gen.	του εαυτού του	του εαυτού της	τον εαυτού του
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Acc.	τον εαυτό τους	τον εαυτό τους	τον εαυτό τους
Gen.	του εαυτού τους	τους εαυτού τους	του εαυτού τους


Plurals of Reflexive Pronouns

Another form of the plural Reflexive Pronoun is sometimes found in older books:

τους εαυτούς μας/σας/τους <<for>> τον εαυτό μας/σας/τους

των εαυτών μας/σας/τους <<for>> του εαυτού μας/σας/τους

In the plural of the 3rd Person Reflexive Pronoun, the form των is sometimes found instead of the form τους. This is avoided in the genitive plural.


i.e. a form other than the nominative


Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns (return to Pronouns)

A demonstrative pronoun is one that points out someone or something, for example, this or that. They can also be used as adjectives with nouns (e.g. this book).

There are five types of demonstrative pronouns:

αυτός	This is the most common demonstrative pronoun and can be translated as this or that. It is used when someone or something is close by or has been recently mentioned. Example
(ε)τούτος	Used to point emphatically to someone or something close at hand or recently mentioned: this Example
εκείνος	Used to point to someone or something further away or mentioned previously: that Example
τέτοιος	Used to point out the quality or nature of someone or something Example
τόσος	Used to point out extent or quantity Example

Because of the meaning of demonstrative pronouns there are no vocative forms.

 The Pronoun αυτός

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	αυτός	αυτή	αυτό
Acc.	αυτόν	αυτήν	αυτό
Gen.	αυτού	αυτής	αυτού
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	αυτοί	αυτές	αυτά
Acc.	αυτούς	αυτές	αυτά
Gen.	αυτών	αυτών	αυτών

 The Pronoun (ε)τούτος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ετούτος	ετούτη	ετούτο
Acc.	ετούτο	ετούτη	ετούτο
Gen.	ετούτου	ετούτης	ετούτου
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ετούτοι	ετούτες	ετούτα
Acc.	ετούτους	ετούτες	ετούτα
Gen.	ετούτων	ετούτων	ετούτων

 The Pronoun εκείνος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	εκείνος	εκείνη	εκείνο
Acc.	εκείνο	εκείνη	εκείνο
Gen.	εκείνου	εκείνης	εκείνου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	εκείνοι	εκείνες	εκείνα
Acc.	εκείνους	εκείνες	εκείνα
Gen.	εκείνων	εκείνων	εκείνων

 The Pronoun τέτοιος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τέτοιος	τέτοια	τέτοια
Acc.	τέτοιο	τέτοια	τέτοιο
Gen.	τέτοιου	τέτοιας	τέτοιου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τέτοιοι	τέτοιες	τέτοια
Acc.	τέτοιους	τέτοιες	τέτοια
Gen.	τέτοιων	τέτοιων	τέτοιων

 The Pronoun τόσος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τόσος	τόση	τόσο
Acc.	τόσο	τόσης	τόσο
Gen.	τόσου	τόσης	τόσου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τόσα	τόσα	τόσα
Acc.	τόσους	τόσες	τόσα
Gen.	τόσων	τόσων	τόσων


αυτός

Αυτός ο κύριος είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= That man is my brother.

Αυτό είναι πολύ δύσκολο

= This (that) is very difficult.

Τί είναι αυτά:

= What is this (that)?

Αυτά είπε και έφυγε.

= He said that and left.


ετούτος

Ετούτο το πότο είναι δικό μου εκείνο είναι δικό σας.

= This is my drink, that is yours.

Ετούτο είναι το αυτοκίνητό μου.

= This is my car.


εκείνος

Ετούτο το πότο είναι δικό μου εκείνο είναι δικό σας.

= This is my drink, that is yours.

Εκείνο το καλοκαίρι πήγαμε στην Κρήτη.

= That summer we went to Crete.

Εκείνο το βουνό είναι το πιο ψηλό στην Ελλάδα.

= That mountain is the highest in Greece.


τέτοιος

Τέτοια είναι η ζωή.

= Such is life.

Ο γιός μου δεν είναι τέτοιος

= My son is not like that.


τόσος

Το πρόβλημα δεν είναι τόσο.

= The problem isn't so great.

Το δέντρο  είναι τόσο ψηλό που δεν μπορώ να δω την κορυφή.

= The tree is so high that I can't see the top.


ετούτος

Sometimes the initial vowel is dropped, sometimes it is retained.


Demonstrative Pronouns & the Article

When the demonstrative pronouns αυτός‚ εκείνος and ετούτος are used like an adjective, the noun must have the article:

Αυτός ο άνδρας δε μου είναι γνωστός.

= That man is not known to me.

Δεν έχω διαβάσει αυτό το βιβλίο.

= I haven't read that book.

Εκείνες τις μέρες τα παιδιά τιμούσαν τους γονείς τους.

= In those days, children respected their parents.


The Intensive Pronoun

The Intensive Pronoun (return to Pronouns)

The intensive pronoun is comprised of the article + the adjective ίδιος. It is used to give emphasis to a noun or personal pronoun or to distinguish it from something else. When used with a pronoun it is translated as -self, when used with a noun it is translated as same, for example:

Εγώ ο ίδιος θα έρθω

= I myself will come.

Ολοι μας έχουμε τις ίδιες γνώμες

= We all have the same views.

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ο ίδιος	η ίδια	το ίδιο
Acc.	τον ίδιο	την ίδια	το ίδιο
Gen.	του ίδιου	της ίδιας	του ίδιου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	οι ίδιοι	οι ίδιες	τα ίδια
Acc.	τους ίδιους	τις ίδιες	τα ίδια
Gen.	των ίδιων	των ίδιων	των ίδιων


ίδιος

The adjective means same, like or similar:

Ο Μανώλης είναι ίδιος με τον πατέρα του.

= Manolis is like his father.

It is also used to form the Intensive Pronoun.


The Relative Pronoun

The Relative Pronoun (return to Pronouns)

The relative pronoun is used to introduce a relative clause which provides further information about a word which has been already used in the sentence. It is said to refer to the word and the word is called its antecedent.

There are four types of relative pronouns:

που	The most common relative pronoun. It does not decline and is translated as who, whom, which or that Example
ο οποίος	Less common than που, it is comprised of the article + οποίος both of which decline. It is used to avoid ambiguity Example
όποιος	This is the indefinite relative pronoun and translates as whoever or whatever. The indeclinable ο‚τι combination is also used to mean whatever Example
όσος	This relative pronoun indicates quantity or size and can be translated as many as or as much as Example

Because of the meaning of relative pronouns there are no vocative forms.

 που

Since it does not decline, there is no table of endings for it. See the uses of που.

 ο οποίος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	οποίος	οποία	οποίο
Acc.	οποίο	οποίαν	οποίο
Gen.	οποίου	οποίας	οποίου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	οποίοι	οποίες	οποία
Acc.	οποίους	οποίες	οποία
Gen.	οποίων	οποίων	οποίων

 όποιος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	όποιος	όποια	όποιο
Acc.	όποιο	όποια	όποιο
Gen.	όποιου	όποιας	όποιου
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	όποιοι	όποιες	όποια
Acc.	όποιους	όποιες	όποια
Gen.	όποιων	όποιων	όποιων

 όσος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	όσος	όση	όσο
Acc.	όσο	όση	όσο
Gen.	όσου	όσης	όσου
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	όσοι	όσες	όσα
Acc.	όσους	όσες	όσα
Gen.	όσων	όσων	όσων


που

Ο άνδρας που κοιτάζεις είναι ο πατέρας μου.

= The man whom you are looking at is my father. (see Note below)

Ο άνδρας που σε κοιτάζει είναι ο πατέρας μου.

= The man who is looking at you is may father. (see Note below)

Η γυναίκα που βλέπεις είναι η μητέρα μου.

= The woman whom you see is my mother.

Οι κουβέντες που ακούς δεν είναι αληθείς.

= The gossip which you hear is not true.

Note: In order to avoid the sort of ambiguity that the first two examples can generate, the weak form of the personal pronoun is often used to narrow the meaning:

Ο άνδρας που τον κοιτάζεις είναι ο πατέρας μου.

= The man whom you are looking at (at him) is my father.


ο οποίος

Αυτός ο άνθρωπος για τον οποίο μιλώ είναι ο Μανώλης.

= That man about whom I am speaking is Manolis.

Θέλω να πάω στο πανεπιστήμιο στο οποίο ο πατέρας μου πήγε.

= I want to go to the university to which my father went.

Οι κυρίες οι οποίες φώναζαν ήταν διαδηλωτές.

= The women who were shouting were demonstrators.


όποιος

΄Οποιος το πιστέυει αυτό πρέπει να είναι τρελλός.

= Whoever believes that must be mad.

΄Οποιον αγαπάνε οι θεοί πεθαίνει νέος.

= Whomever the gods love dies young.

Δώστε μου όποια βιβλία θέλετε.

= Give me whatever books you wish.

΄Ελα ό‚τι ώρα θέλεις.

= Come whatever time you want.


όσος

Πάρε όσα θέλεις.

= Take as much as you want.

Μου είπε όσα θυμήθηκε.

= He told me as much as he remembered.

Θα έρθουν όσοι μπορούν.

= As many as can will come.


οποιοσδήποτε

Often, the suffix �δήποτε is added to the relative pronouns όποιος‚ όσος,  ό,τι to make their meaning more indefinite. The subjunctive with αν is also frequently used in conjunction with this suffix:

Οποιοσδήποτε έτσι σκέφτεται κάνει λάθος.

= Whoever thinks this is wrong.

Οποιαδήποτε κι αν λες δεν θα σ' ακούσω.

= Whatever you may say I will not listen to you.

Θα κάνω οτιδήποτε να σας βοηθήσω.

= I will do whatever (I can) to help you.


ό,τι

The indeclinable combination ό‚τι (used to mean whatever) is usually written with the comma separating the two elements in order to distinguish the construction from the conjunction ότι (that):

Φώναζε ό‚τι ήθελε.

= He was shouting whatever he wanted.

Φώναζε ότι ήθελε...

= He was shouting that he was wanting...


The Indefinite Pronoun

The Indefinite Pronoun (return to Pronouns)

Indefinite Pronouns are pronouns which refer to someone or something without specifically identifying them/it, either because it cannot be done or because it is not desired, for example, someone, something, some or a/an. There are a number of Greek Indefinite Pronouns:

ένας	is the indefinite article and is used in the sense of a person or someone. It is not as common as the next two in this sense Example
κανείς/κανένας	depending on the context, this translates as someone or no one Example
κάποιος	translates as someone. It is very similar to the positive meaning of κανένας Example
κάτι	is an indeclinable word and translates as something Example
τίποτα	depending on the context, it could translate as something or nothing Example
καθένας	translates as each one Example
κάμποσος	translates as a number, an amount or a quantity Example

 κανείς/κανένας

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	κανείς	καμιά	κανένα
Acc.	κανέναν	καμιάν	κανένα
Gen.	κανενός	καμιάς	κανένος
For obvious reasons there is no plural.

 κάποιος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	κάποιος	κάποια	κάποιο
Acc.	κάποιον	κάποιαν	κάποιο
Gen.	κάποιου	κάποιας	κάποιου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	κάποιοι	κάποιες	κάποια
Acc.	κάποιους	κάποιες	κάποια
Gen.	κάποιων	κάποιων	κάποιων

 κατι does not decline

 τίποτα does not decline

 καθένας

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	καθένας	καθεμιά	καθένα
Acc.	κανέναν	καθεμιά	καθένα
Gen.	καθενός	καθεμιάς	καθενός
There are no plural forms.

 κάμποσος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	κάμποσος	κάμποση	κάμποσο
Acc.	κάμποσο	κάμποση	κάμποσο
Gen.	κάμποσου	κάμποσης	κάμποσου

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	κάμποσοι	κάμποσες	κάμποσα
Acc.	κάμποσους	κάμποσες	κάμποσα
Gen.	κάμποσων	κάμποσων	κάμποσων


ένας

Μου είπε ένας για το δυστύχημα.

= Someone (a man) told me about the accident.


κανένας

The nominative form κανείς is used when it is on its own and κανένας is used when it is qualifying a noun. The word can have a positive or negative meaning:

1 If the phrase in which the word is used is negative or in reply to a question, then the pronoun means no one or no:

Δεν το ξέρει κανείς.

= No one knows it.

Δεν έχω κανένα βιβλίο.

= I have no book.

Ποιός είναι: Κανείς.

= Who is it? No one.

Δεν έχει καμιά μέθοδο.

= He has no method.

2 If the phrase in which the word is used is positive (not negative) then, the pronoun means someone, any or some:

Είδες κανένα αγόρι στο δρόμο;

= Did you see a boy in the street?

Θα γυρίσω καμιά μέρα.

= I will return some day.


κάποιος

Κάποιος σε είδε στο σινεμά.

= Someone saw you at the cinema.

Κάποιες γυναίκες με φώναξαν.

= Some women shouted at me.


κάτι

΄Εχω κάτι να σου πω.

= I have something to tell you.

Κάτι θα γίνει.

= Something will happen.

But note this example:

Κάτι άνθρωποι σε γύρευαν.

= Some men were looking for you.


τίποτα

The word can have a positive or a negative meaning:

1 If the phrase in which the word is found is positive, then the pronoun translates as something or anything:

Θα βρεις τίποτα στην κουζίνα.

= You will find something in the oven.

΄Εχεις τίποτα νέα:

= Do you have any news?

2 If the phrase in which the word is found is negative, then the pronoun translates as nothing:

Τίποτα δε θα γίνει.

= Nothing will happen.

Τί έχεις; Τίποτα.

= What's the matter? Nothing.

Δεν έχω τίποτα.

= I have nothing.


καθένας

Ο καθένας με τη σείρα του.

= Each one in his turn.

Είπε τη γνώμη ο καθένας.

= Each person expressed his view.


κάμποσος

This pronoun expresses an indefinite quantity or amount and is usually translated as some:

΄Εχω κάμποσα λεφτά.

= I have some money.

Πέρασε κάμποση ώρα.

= Some time passed.


κανείς

When the pronoun is used on its own, the nominative form is usually κανείς:

Δεν το ξέρει κανείς.

= No one knows it.

When the pronoun is used as an adjective with a noun the nominative form is κανένας:

Υπάρχει κανένας ιατρός στο θέατρο;

= Is there a doctor in the theater?

The neuter form is sometimes spelled κάνα:

΄Εχετε κάνα βιβλίο για μένα;

= Do you have a book for me?


τίποτα

Sometimes the pronoun τίποτα is spelled τίποτε.


The Interrogative Pronoun

The Interrogative Pronoun (return to Pronouns)

The Interrogative Pronoun is used to ask questions. There are three types:

τί	This indeclinable pronoun translates as what Example
ποιός	Translates as who or which Example
πόσος	Translates as how big or how much Example
Because of the meaning of these pronouns there are no vocative forms.

 τί does not decline

 ποιός

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ποιός	ποιά	ποιό
Acc.	ποιόν	ποιάν	ποιό
Gen.	ποιού	ποιάς	ποιού
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ποιοί	ποιές	ποιά
Acc.	ποιούς	ποιές	ποιά
Gen.	ποιών	ποιών	ποιών

 πόσος

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	πόσος	πόση	πόσο
Acc.	πόσο	πόση	πόσο
Gen.	πόσου	πόσης	πόσου
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	πόσοι	πόσες	πόσα
Acc.	πόσους	πόσες	πόσα
Gen.	πόσων	πόσων	πόσων


τί (what)

Τί είναι αυτό;

= What is that?

Τί λουλούδια είναι αυτά;

= What flowers are these?

Τί θα θέλατε‚ κύριε;

= What would you like?


ποιός (who, whom, what)

Ποιός είναι;

= Who is it?

Ποιά είναι αυτή η κυρία;

= Who is that lady?

Για ποιό θέμα θα μιλάμε;

= What subject will we talk about?

Ποιόν βλέπεις;

= Whom do you see?


πόσος (how much, how many)

Πόσο κάνει αυτό;

= How much does that cost?

Πόσες μέρες πρέπει να μείνω;

= How many days must I wait?

Πόσα θα θέλατε‚ κυρία;

= How much would you like, madam?


ποιός

Another form of the genitive singular and plural is:

ποιανού/ποιανής/ποιανού

ποιανών

Sometimes you may find the genitive singular of the old form of the interrogative pronoun τίνος used instead of the more normal ποιού and, more rarely, the genitive plural form τίνων instead of ποιών:

Τινός είναι αυτό το βιβλίο;

= Whose is that book?

Περί τίνος πρόκειται;

= It is a question of what?


The Possessive Pronoun

Possessive Pronouns (return to Pronouns)

Possessive Pronouns show to whom a thing belongs. The most frequently used Possessive Pronouns are the genitive forms of the weak forms of the personal pronouns and are written immediately after the noun they qualify, for example:

μου	my
σου	your (singular)
του	his/its
της	her/its (when noun is feminine)
μας	our
σας	your (plural) -- also used with polite 2nd person plural
τους	their
If stress is being placed on the possessor, the adjective δικός + the possessive pronoun (mine, yours, etc.) is used, for example:

 δικός

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	δικός	δική	δικό
Acc.	δικό	δική	δικό
Gen.	δικού	δικής	δικού

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	δικοί	δικές	δικά
Acc.	δικούς	δικές	δικά
Gen.	δικών	δικών	δικών


Possessive Pronouns

Ο αδερφός μου είναι στρατιώτης.

= My brother is a soldier.

Είδα την αδερφή σου στην αγορά.

= I saw your sister in the market.

Η αδερφή του ήταν στην αγορά.

= His sister was in the market.

Ο δάσκαλός μας κατάγεται από τη Μάνη.

= Our teacher comes from the Mani.

Το εισιτήριό σας‚ κύριε;

= Your ticket, sir?

Οι γονείς τους πέθαναν στον πόλεμο.

= Their parents died in the war.


δικός

Αυτό το βιβλίο είναι το δικό μου.

= That book is mine.

Ο δικός μου πατέρας είναι στην κυβέρνηση.

= My father is in the government.

Ποιό αυτοκίνητο είναι το δικό σας‚ κύριε;

= Which car is yours, sir?


The Word POU

The Word ΠΟΥ

The word που, as well as being the most frequently used form of the relative pronoun, also has a number of other uses, some of which are summarized below. It's not easy to neatly classify some of the word's uses and the novice is advised to consult a lexicon when puzzled by a particular usage.

The word που can be used:

 to introduce relative clauses:

Η γυναίκα που αγαπάω είναι Ελληνίδα.

= The woman whom I love is a Greek.

 after adverbs of time or place:

Τώρα που την αλήθεια ξέρω δε θέλω να σε ξαναδώ.

= Now that I know the truth I don't want to see you again.

Εδώ που στεκόμαστε βρέθηκε ένας αρχαίος ναός.

= Here where we are standing there was an ancient temple.

 to introduce a sort of indirect statement after certain expressions such as verbs of perception and emotion and other words involving the emotions:

Θυμάμαι που μου το είπες.

= I remember that you told me it.

Δε μ' αρέσει που μου το είπες αυτό.

= I don't like it that you told me that.

Καλά που μου το είπες.

= It's good that you told me it.

 to introduce a result clause when a word like τόσος is in the main clause:

H τουρίστρια μιλάει τα Ελληνικά τόσο καλά που δεν χρειάζεται λεξικό.

= The tourist speaks Greek so well that she doesn't need a dictionary.

 to loosely link two clauses in a variety of ways:

Κάθε που πηγαίνω στην Ελλάδα κατευθύνομαι για την Αθήνα.

= Every time I go to Greece I head for Athens.

΄Εχεις ώρα που έβγαλες κουβέντα.

= It's ages since you uttered a word.

Με το που το πρότεινε το έκανε.

= No sooner did she suggest it than she did it.

Note the following colloquial expression which is the equivalent of well then:

Που λες‚ θα τα πούμε στους άλλους;

= Well then, will we tell the others?


Adjectives

  Adjectives (also see Adverbs)

An adjective is a word which describes a noun, for example, the red book, a quiet moment, a happy child. In Greek, an adjective agrees with the noun it describes in three ways:

 It has the same number

 It has the same gender

 It has the same case

Unlike nouns, the accent on adjectives does not move from the syllable it possesses in the singular masculine nominative.

Here, adjectives have been divided into two types: those belonging to the 1st & 2nd Declensions and those described as Mixed Declension adjectives.

1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives

Mixed Declension Adjectives

Irregular Adjectives

The Comparison of Adjectives

Irregular Comparison

Adverbs


Accents on Adjectives

The accent stays on the same syllable no matter the case of the adjective:

 Nominative

ένας πολύ ακούραστος άνθρωπος

 Genitive

ενός πολυ ακούραστου άνθρώπου

However, when an adjective is used on its own (alone) as a noun, its accent may move as it does for nouns:

Η μητέρα του άρρωστου παιδιού δάκρυζε (normal adj.).

= The mother of the sick child was weeping.

Η μητέρα του αρρώστου δάκρυζε (adj. as noun).

= The mother of the invalid was weeping.


1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives

1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives (also see Adjectives)

These adjectives are so called because their endings belong to the 1st & 2nd declensions:

 The masculine form belongs to the 2nd Declension

 The feminine form belongs to the 1st Declension

 The neuter form belongs to the 2nd Declension

 καλός (fine, good)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	καλός	καλή	καλό
Voc.	καλέ	καλή	καλό
Acc.	καλό	καλή	καλό
Gen.	καλού	καλής	καλού
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	καλοί	καλές	καλά
Voc.	καλοί	καλές	καλά
Acc.	καλούς	καλές	καλά
Gen.	καλών	καλών	καλών

Other Adjectives which decline like καλός are those whose stems end in a consonant or which are oxytone or proparoxytone with stems ending in a vowel sound other than an ee sound.

 ωραίος (beautiful)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ωραίος	ωραία	ωραίο
Voc.	ωραίε	ωραία	ωραίο
Acc.	ωραίο	ωραία	ωραίο
Gen.	ωραίου	ωραίας	ωραίου
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ωραίοι	ωραίες	ωραία
Voc.	ωραίοι	ωραίες	ωραία
Acc.	ωραίους	ωραίες	ωραία
Gen.	ωραίων	ωραίων	ωραίων

Other adjectives which decline like ωραίος are those whose stem ends in an ee sound vowel or which are paroxytone with stems ending in a vowel and a few whose stem ends in a consonant.

 γλυκός (sweet)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	γλυκός	γλυκιά	γλυκό
Voc.	γλυκέ	γλυκιά	γλυκό
Acc.	γλυκό	γλυκιά	γλυκό
Gen.	γλυκού	γλυκιάς	γλυκού
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	γλυκοί	γλυκές	γλυκά
Voc.	γλυκοί	γλυκές	γλυκά
Acc.	γλυκούς	γλυκές	γλυκά
Gen.	γλυκών	γλυκών	γλυκών

Other Adjectives which decline like γλυκός are those which are oxytone and end in -κός‚ -χός and -νός.


Adjectives Like καλός

ακριβός	expensive
γεμάτος	full
δύσκολος	difficult
έτοιμος	ready
μαύρος	black
μεγάλος	big
ξύλινος	wooden


Adjectives Like ωραίος

αρχαίος	ancient
καινούργιος	new
μέτριος	medium
νέος	new, young
τίμιος	honest
Note, however, that some adjectives whose stem ends in a consonant also decline like ωραίος:

γκρίζος	gray
πανούργος	crafty


Other Adjectives Which Decline Like γλυκός

κακός	bad
μαλακός	soft, gentle
φτωχός	poor

Sometimes these adjectives decline like καλός.


Non-ee Sounds: α‚ ε‚ αι‚ ο‚ ω and ου

ee Sounds: ι‚ η‚ υ‚ ει and οι


Mixed Declension Adjectives

(also see Adjectives and/or 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives)

This category contains many adjectives which, in the classical language, belonged to the 3rd declension but now have forms which belong to all three declensions. It contains one sub-category which almost wholly belongs to the 3rd declension and which, in some grammars, is described as irregular.

Typical adjectives of this type are βαθύς (deep), σταχτής (ashen), ζηλιάρης (jealous), ακριβής (expensive) and ενδιαφέρων (interesting). The last was originally a participle in the classical language.

 βαθύς (deep)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	βαθύς	βαθιά	βαθύ
Voc.	βαθύ	βαθιά	βαθύ
Acc.	βαθύ	βαθιά	βαθύ
Gen.	βαθιού	βαθιάς	βαθιού
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	βαθιοί	βαθιές	βαθιά
Voc.	βαθιοί	βαθιές	βαθιά
Acc.	βαθιούς	βαθιές	βαθιά
Gen.	βαθιών	βαθιών	βαθι�ών

Other Adjectives which decline like βαθύς.

 σταχτής (ashen)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	σταχτής	σταχτιά	σταχτί
Voc.	σταχτή	σταχτιά	σταχτί
Acc.	σταχτή	σταχτιά	σταχτί
Gen.	σταχτιού	σταχτιάς	σταχτιού
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	σταχτιοί	σταχτιές	σταχτιά
Voc.	σταχτιοί	σταχτιές	σταχτιά
Acc.	σταχτιούς	σταχτιές	σταχτιά
Gen.	σταχτιών	σταχτιών	σταχτι�ών

Other Adjectives which decline like σταχτής.

 ζηλιάρης (jealous)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ζηλιάρης	ζηλιάρα	ζηλιάρικο
Voc.	ζηλιάρη	ζηλιάρα	ζηλιάρικο
Acc.	ζηλιάρη	ζηλιάρα	ζηλιάρικο
Gen.	ζηλιάρη	ζηλιάρας	ζηλιάρικου
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ζηλιάρηδες	ζηλιάρες	ζηλιάρικα
Voc.	ζηλιάρηδες	ζηλιάρες	ζηλιάρικα
Acc.	ζηλιάρηδες	ζηλιάρες	ζηλιάρικα
Gen.	ζηλιάρηδων	ζηλιάρων	ζηλιάρικων

Other Adjectives which decline like ζηλιάρης.

 ακριβής (expensive)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ακριβής	ακριβής	ακριβές
Voc.	ακριβής	ακριβής	ακριβές
Acc.	ακριβή	ακριβή	ακριβές
Gen.	ακριβούς	ακριβούς	ακριβούς
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ακριβείς	ακριβείς	ακριβή
Voc.	ακριβείς	ακριβείς	ακριβή
Acc.	ακριβείς	ακριβείς	ακριβή
Gen.	ακριβών	ακριβών	ακριβών

Other Adjectives which decline like ακριβής.

 ενδιαφέρων (interesting)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ενδιαφέρων	ενδιαφερούσα	ενδιαφέρον
Voc.	ενδιαφέρον	ενδιαφέρουσα	ενδιαφέρον
Acc.	ενδιαφέροντα	ενδιαφέρουσα	ενδιαφέρον
Gen.	ενδιαφέροντος	ενδιαφέρουσας	ενδιαφέρον
Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	ενδιαφέροντες	ενδιαφέρουσες	ενδιαφέροντα
Voc.	ενδιαφέροντες	ενδιαφέρουσες	ενδιαφέροντα
Acc.	ενδιαφέροντες	ενδιαφέρουσες	ενδιαφέροντα
Gen.	ενδιαφέροντων	ενδιαφέρουσων	ενδιαφέροντων

Other Adjectives which decline like ενδιαφέρων.


Other Adjectives Like βαθύς

Most of these adjectives denote size or quality:

βαρύς	heavy
μακρύς	long
παχύς	thick
πλατύς	wide
τραχύς	rough


Other Adjectives Like σταχτής

Many of these adjectives refer to color:

θαλασσής	sea blue
καφετής	coffee brown
πορτοκαλής	orange
χρυσαφής	golden


ζηλιάρης

απλοχέρης	generous
γκρινιάρης	complainer
πεισματάρης	obstinate
μικρούλης	tiny


ακριβής

These adjectives are almost wholely 3rd Declension:

διεθνής	international
ειλικρινής	honest
συνεχής	continuous
Note: All adjectives in this category have the accent on the last syllable in the genitive plural forms.


Other Adjectives Like ενδιαφέρων

μέλλων	future
πάρων	present
φλέγων	burning

Many of these adjectives were participles in the classical language but there are a couple of adjectives which are genuine 3rd Declension Adjectives and differ from the participles in not having the �-τ- before the ending:

μετριόφρων	modest
σώφρων	wise


  Irregular Adjective

(also see Adjectives and/or 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives)

There is only one common irregular adjective and it is very common: πολύς (much)

Singular

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	πολύς	πολλή	πολύ
Voc.	πολύ	πολλή	πολύ
Acc.	πολύ	πολλή	πολύ
Gen.	πολλού	πολλής	πολλού

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	πολλοί	πολλές	πολλά
Voc.	πολλοί	πολλές	πολλά
Acc.	πολλούς	πολλές	πολλά
Gen.	πολλών	πολλών	πολλών


This form is rarely found.


This form is not used.


  The Comparison of Adjectives

(also see Irregular Comparison and/or Adjectives)

Grammatically, there are three degrees to which a noun can exhibit the quality of an adjective:

 Positive (e.g. high)

 Comparative (e.g. higher)

 Superlative (e.g. highest/very high)

These are called the degrees of comparison of an adjective.

 Rules of Regular Comparison

 The comparative is formed in two ways:

1 by putting the indeclinable adverb πιο before the positive form of the adjective:

πιο ψηλός	higher
πιο εύκολος	easier
πιο μικρός	smaller
2 by adding the ending -ότερος to the stem of the positive form of the adjective:

ψηλότερος	higher
ευκολότερος	easier
μικρότερος	smaller

 The superlative is also formed in two ways:

1 by putting the definite article before the comparative form:

ο πιο ψηλός/ο ψηλότερος	highest
ο πιο εύκολος/ο ευκολότερος	easiest
ο πιο μικρός/ο μικρότερος	smallest
2 by adding the ending -ότατος to the stem of the positive form:

ψηλότατος	highest
ευκολότατος	easiest
In Greek, the second form of the superlative (using the word very) is also called the absolute superlative (απόλυτο υπερθέτικο) because it need not be used in comparisons. It can also be formed by placing the adverb πολύ before the positive form of the adjective:

πολύ ψηλός	very high
πολύ εύκολος	very easy
πολύ μικρός	very small
Both the comparative in -ότερος and the superlative in -ότατος are declined like the adjective καλός.


Comparatives in -ότερος

Some adjectives form their comparatives with -ώτερος:

νέος >>	νεώτερος

Some adjectives form their comparatives with -ύτερος:

βαθύς >>	βαθύτερος
βαρύς >>	βαρύτερος
καλός >>	καλύτερος
μεγάλος >>	μεγαλύτερος
πρώτος >>	πρωτύτερος
Note: γλυκός >> γλυκύτερος/γλυκότερος


Superlatives in -ότατος

Some adjectives form their superlatives with -ώτατος:

νέος >>	νεώτατος

Some adjectives form their superlatives with -ύτατος:

βαθύς >>	βαθύτατος
βαρύς >>	βαρύτατος
γλυκός >>	γλυκύτατος
καλός >>	καλύτατος
μεγάλος >>	μεγαλύτατος
πρώτος >>	πρωτύτατος


  Irregular Comparison

(also see The Regular Comparison of Adjectives)

Irregular Comparison is when the comparative forms cannot be formed by following the normal rules. There are some common irregular comparisons in English:

good >>	better >>	best
bad >>	worse >>	worst

Similarly, there are a number of common adjectives in Greek which form their comparatives and/or superlatives in an irregular manner:

Positive		Comparative	Superlative
απλός	simple	απλούστερος	απλούστατος
γερός	old	γεροντότερος	--
κακός	bad	χειρότερος	--
καλός	good	καλύτερος	άριστος
λίγος	little	λιγότερος	ελάχιστος
μεγάλος	big	μεγαύτερος	μέγιστος
μικρός	small	μικρότερος	ελάχιστος
πολύς	much	περισσότερος	--

There are other irregularities:

 Adjectives which do not have a positive form

 Adjectives which do not have positive or superlative forms

 Adjectives which do not have comparative or superlative forms


ανώτερος	higher >>	ανώτατος
κατώτερος	lower >>	κατώτατος
υπέρτερος	superior >>	υπέρτατος


μεταγενέστερος	subsequent
προγενέστερος	previous
προτιμότερος	preferable
πρωτύτερος	earlier


Many adjectives which indicate material, origin, relationship, place, time or state do not have comparative or superlative forms:

ξύλινος	wooden
χρύσος	golden
ουράνιος	heavenly
σημερινός	of today
αθάνατος	immortal


Adverbs

  Adverbs (also see Irregular Adverbs)

An adverb is a word which describes the action of a verb, for example:

The river flows swiftly.

The girl sings sweetly.

Rules for the Regular Formation of Adverbs

The positive form of the adverb is:

1 Equivalent to the plural neuter nominative of the adjective. This is the case for most adverbs:

well	καλός >>	καλά	well
beautiful	ωραίος >>	ωραίά	beautifully
sweet	γλυκός >>	γλυκά	sweetly
deep	βαθύς >>	βαθιά	deeply

2 Formed by adding -ώς to the stems of adjectives ending in -ής:

ακριβής >>	ακριβώς	accurately
διεθνής >>	διεθνώς	internationally
συνεχής >>	συνεχώς	continuously
The comparative and superlative forms of the adverb are:

1 Equivalent to the plural neuter nominative of the comparative and superlative forms of the adjective. This is the case for most adverbs:

πιο καλός >>	πιο καλά	better
πολύ καλός >>	πολύ καλά	very well
ωραιότερος >>	ωραιότερα	more beautifully
βαθύτερος >>	βαθύτατα	very deeply
2 Formed by adding -έστερα or -έστατα to the stems of adjectives ending in -ής:

ακριβής >>	ακριβέστερα	more accurately
ακριβής >>	ακριβέστατα	most accurately


Greek adverbs can also be used like adjectives to describe a noun:

το κάτω μέρος	the bottom part
η τότε κυβέρνηση	the then government
ο πρωήν προθυπουργός	the former(ly) prime minister

They can also be used to modify adjectives:

σχεδόν γεμάτος	almost full
απίστευτα άσχημος	unbelievably ugly
επιστημονικά ανυπόστατος	scientifically unsupported


Irregular Adverbs

  Irregular Adverbs (also see Regular Adverbs)

There are a number of adverbs which are formed irregularly:

Adverb	Comparative	Superlative
λίγο	little	λιγότερο	ελάχιστα/πολύ λίγο
μπρος	in front	μπροστύτερα	--
νωρίς	early	νωρίτερα	�--
πολύ	much	περισσότερο	πάρα πολύ
ύστερα	later	υστερότερα	--


  Prepositions

A preposition is a word preceding or placed in front of a noun or pronoun which expresses a spatial, temporal or some other relationship with it, for example:

under the bed

before the flood

about the war

Greek prepositions are indeclinable and are followed by the accusative of the word they go with. The most common prepositions are:

αντί	instead of
από	from
για	for
δίχως	without
ίσαμε	up to
κατά	against
με	with
μετά	after
μέχρι	until
παρά	in spite of
προς	towards
σε	in/to
χωρίς	without
ως	up to
There are also compound prepositions made up of adverbs and simple prepositions:

γύρω από	about
εκτός από	outside
κάτω απο	below
κοντά σε	near to
μέσα σε	inside
πάνω σε	upon
πάνω από	above

There are also some prepositions inherited from the classical language which are sometimes used.


The preposition σε always and the preposition από sometimes drop their final letter before the definite article that starts with τ-:

στην ταβέρνα

στο Λονδίνο

στους γονείς

απ' την ταβέρνα

απ' την Αθήνα

The prepositions από‚ για‚ ίσαμε‚ κατά‚ με‚ παρά and σε often drop their final vowel before words beginning with a vowel:

γι' αυτόν

σ' αυτήν

παρ' όλο


In addition to the common prepositions, there some prepositions inherited from the classical language which are still found in some expressions and frequently used as prefixes:

δια	through (followed by the genitive)
εκ/εξ	from, out of (+ genitive)
εκτός	outside (+ genitive)
εν	in (followed by the dative -- only in stock phrases like εν τούτοις)
επί	in the time of (+ genitive)
μεταξύ	between (+ genitive)
περί	about (+ genitive)
προ	in front of (+ genitive)
υπέρ	for the sake of (+ genitive)
υπό	under
The following ancient prepositions are used in mathematics:

συν	plus
επί	times
διά	divided by
πλην	minus
μείον	less


Parataxis

  Parataxis (also see The Sentence)

Parataxis is the method of constructing a complex sentence, not by subordinating one sentence to another but, rather, by joining both sentences with conjunctions like and or but:

Subordination	When day broke Alexander set forth.
Parataxis	Day broke and Alexander set forth.

This simple sentence structure has been common in Greek throughout the history of the language and is still very common in the modern language. It is more frequently encountered in ordinary speech than in formal writing.

Following are some examples of paratactic structure used to express what would more formally be expressed by different types of subordinate clauses:

Condition	Δείξε το μου και θα σου το δείξω. = Show me and I'll show you. (...if you show...)
Temporal	΄Ημουν στην Αθήνα και είδα την Ακρόπολη. = I was in Athens and I saw the Acropolis. (...when I was...)
Relative	Στο δρόμο είδα ένα άντρα και πολύ παράξενα φέροταν. = I saw a man in the road and he was behaving very oddly.(...who was behaving....)
να Construction	Στο δρόμο ο Γιάννης άρχισε και φέροταν πολύ παράξενα. = In the road Yannis began to behave very strangely. (...began to behave...)
Result	Ο Γιάννης φέροταν παράξενο στο δρόμο και το συλλάβανε. = Yanis was behaving oddly in the road and they arrested him. (...that they arrested...)


  The Sentence

A sentence is a collection of words put together according to the rules of grammar and syntax to form a complete utterance. It is complete in that it can stand on its own without the grammatical or syntactical need for any other words. It is an utterance in that some idea is communicated to an actual or potential reader or listener.

A sentence is made up of a subject and a predicate:

 The subject is the person or thing who accomplishes an action or is in a certain state.

 The predicate is what is said of the subject, the action or state.

The subject is a noun or its equivalent (e.g. a pronoun or proper name) and can be made up of a number of words. The predicate is a verb or contains a verb:

He runs.

He runs into the field.

The boy leads the sheep into the field.

Yianis and his sons lead the sheep into the fields.

A sentence which has only one predicate is called a simple sentence. A compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences joined by conjunctions like and or but, for example:

The boy runs into the field and the sheep run out of it.

Such compound sentences are often examples of parataxis.

A complex sentence is one which is made up of a simple sentence (called the main clause or principal clause) and another sentence (called the subordinate clause) which is grammatically dependent on the main clause. The subordinate clause is linked to the main clause by a subordinating conjunction such as when, who, although or if:

When the boy runs into the field the sheep run out of it.

If you go to Athens you will see the Acropolis.

The boy looked for the sheep which ran out of the field.


Questions

  Questions (also see Indirect Questions)

Basically, there are two types of questions:

 Questions introduced by an interrogative word which cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. If you're in doubt, ask a lawyer.

 Questions which can be answered by a simple yes or no.

1 Questions introduced by an interrogative word, like who, when, why or how, for example:

Γιατί το έκανε το παιδί;

= Why did the boy do it?

Πότε θα γυρίσει η μάνα;

= When will mom come back?

2 Questions expecting a yes or a no. These can be further subdivided:

(a) Open Questions where the reply is not assumed. These are indicated by the tone of the voice in asking the question or by simply putting a question mark at the end of the question. Polite open questions are sometimes introduced by the word μήπως:

Θα βρέχει αύριο;

= Will it rain tomorrow?

Μήπως ξέρετε πού είναι ο Γιάννης;

= Do you know where Yanis is?

(b) Questions for which there is expected to be a particular response such as yes or no. These are formed as in English using the negative with the verb:

Δεν έχεις αυτοκίνητο;

= Haven't you got a car?

Note: It is possible to alter the nature of a question by using the word να which introduces an extra element of speculation or doubt:

Τι θα κάνω αύριο;

= What will I do tomorrow?

Τι να κάνω;

= What am I to do?

Πότε θα έρθει;

= When will he come?

Πότε να έρθει;

= When is he likely to come?


The Greek form of the question mark is a semicolon (;).

Γιατί; = Why?


In grammar books, his type of question is referred to as a deliberative question.


Commands

  Commands (also see Indirect Commands)

There are two ways to give a command in Greek:

 use the imperative form of the verb

 use να with the subjunctive.

There are two forms of the imperative: the present and the aorist:

1 The present imperative is used for repeated actions or general commands:

Υπακούετε τους γονείς σας.

= Listen to your parents. (a general rule)

Διάβαζε μια εφημερίδα κάθε μέρα.

= Read a newspaper every day.

2 The aorist imperative is used for specific orders, sharp and one-off commands:

΄Ελα δω‚ παιδί!

= Come here, boy!

Υπακούστε τους γονείς σας!

= Listen to your parents!

Διάβασε την εφημερίδα!

= Read the newspaper!

When a weak pronoun is used with an imperative it follows the verb:

Πάρτε το.

= Take it.

Πες μου το.

= Tell me it.

In general, the present imperative is not used as often as the aorist because is considered less polite since it can be used for issuing general rules. Also see irregular imperatives.

The form of the imperative using να with the subjunctive can always be used instead of the imperative form of the verb. It is also considered more polite. This is also the way to express 1st and 3rd person imperatives:

Να μου γράψεις κάθε βδομάδα.

= Write to me every week.

Να μας πείτε τί έγινε.

= Tell us what happened.

Να δω τί έγραψες.

= Let me see what you wrote.

Να έρχονται.= Let them come.

To give a negative command (i.e. to tell someone not to do something) Greek uses the negative μην or να μην with the subjunctive:

Μη φεύγεις.

= Don't leave

Μην το πεις.

= Don't say it.

Να μην έρθουν.

= Don't let them come.

Also note the use of ας plus the aorist subjunctive to express a 1st and 3rd person imperative:

Ας πάμε‚ παιδιά.

= Let's go, lads.

Ας έρθει μαζί μας ο Μπάμπης.

= Let Babis come with us.


Common Irregular Imperatives

Verb	Present	Aorist
ακούω	άκου	(regular)
αφήνω	(regular)	ας
βλέπω	(regular)	δες
δίνω	(regular)	δος
έρχομαι	(regular)	έλα
κάθομαι	(regular)	κάτσε
λέγω	(regular)	πες
σηκώνομαι	(regular)	σήκω
στέκομαι	(regular)	στάσου
σωπαίνω	σώπα	(regular)
τρέχω	τρέχα	(regular)
φεύγω	φεύγα	φύγε
Also note the survival of the ancient 3rd person imperative of the verb "to be" (έστω) in such expressions as:

`Εστω κι αν είσαι ο φίλος μου...

= Even if you are my friend...

(literally = Let it be the case if you are my friend...)


  Indirect Speech

Indirect Speech (Oratio Obliqua) is when a statement is not made directly but is reported as having been made, for example:

Direct Speech	Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.
Indirect Speech	Many people say that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.
Direct Speech	Attack the city!
Indirect Speech	The commander told his men to attack the city.
Direct Speech	When did Alexander become king?
Indirect Speech	We know when Alexander became king.

There are several different indirect constructions:

Indirect Statements

Indirect Commands

Indirect Questions


Indirect Statement

Indirect Statement (also see Indirect Speech)

In English, an indirect statement is a statement, thought or belief which is reported rather than being directly witnessed. Almost any suitable verb or phrase can introduce an indirect statement:

Direct Statement	Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.
Indirect Statement	They say that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.

In English, the construction is usually introduced by the word that but not always because, sometimes, the word that is only implied:

We believe (that) Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.

See Examples of English Indirect Statements

In Greek, the construction is quite similar with the words ότι or πως corresponding to that in English. The verb of the subordinate clause is in the indicative and has the same tense as would have been used in the original statement (actual or invented):

Ξέρω ότι ψέματα λες.

= I know that you are telling lies.

Ξέραμε ότι ψέματα λέει.

= We knew that he was telling lies.

Μου είπες ότι θα έρθεις.

= You told me that you would come.

Νομίζεις ότι έφυγε;

= Do you think that he left.

Νομίσαμε ότι έφυγε.

= We thought that he had left.

Indirect Statement Notes


The original direct statement would be "You are telling lies."


The original direct statement would be "You are telling lies."


The original direct statement would be "I will come."


The original direct statement, or rather, question would be "Did he leave?"


The original direct statement would be "He left."


Sometimes, when the main verb has a past tense, the subordinate verb is changed just as in English:

Ξέραμε ότι ψέματα λέει. = present tense of direct speech

Ξέραμε ότι ψέματα έλεγε. = imperfect tense as in English

= We knew that he was telling lies.

This change of tense is not commonly used.


The two words are identical in meaning but ότι is more formal and πως is more natural in Demotic.


Indirect Statement Notes

1 Verbs of admiration, gladness, anger, sorrow, etc., have subordinate clauses introduced by που:

Χάρηκα που γνώρισα την αδερφή σου.

= I was glad that I met your sister.

΄Ηταν κρίμα που γνώρισες την αδερφή μου.

= It was a pity that you met my sister.

2 The verb φοβάμαι (fear) does not take this construction:

Φοβόταν μην πεθάνει.

= She was afraid that he would die.

3 This construction is not used with verbs of promising, hoping, swearing and remembering, etc., which use the να + subjunctive construction:

Υποσχέθηκε να με δει αύριο.

= He promised that he would see me tomorrow.


In English, there are a number of ways in which an indirect statement can be introduced:

We believe that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.

It was well known that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.

It was clear that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.

You claim that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.

I do not think that Alexander was the greatest of the Greeks.


See Result Clauses


See Indirect Speech


See Purpose Clauses


See Main Clauses


See Commands


Indirect Questions

  Indirect Questions (also see Indirect Speech and/or Direct Questions)

A direct question is a simple question:

Who said that?

What do you want?

When will Yanis return?

An indirect question is a question (actual or implied) which is reported by being made a subordinate clause introduced by a verb or phrase in the main clause:

I know who said that.

It's obvious what you want.

I wonder when Eleni will return.

Who knows when Eleni will return?

In Greek, the construction is quite similar with the interrogative word introducing the subordinate clause. The verb of the subordinate clause has the same tense and mood as would have been used in the original question (actual or invented):

Πες μου πότε θα έρθεις.

= Tell me when you will come.

Δε μου είπε πότε θα έρθεις.

= He didn't tell me when he would come.

Ξέρω γιατί το έκανες.

= I know why you did it.

Δεν ήξερα γιατί το κάνεις.

= I didn't know why you were doing it.

Note: In indirect questions, the words if and whether are translated as αν:

Δεν Ξέρω αν θα έρθεις ο Γιώργος.

= I don't know if Yorgos will be coming.

= I don't know whether Yorgos will be coming.


This is an indirect question introduced by a direct question.


Indirect Commands

  Indirect Commands (also see Indirect Speech and/or Direct Commands)

An Indirect Command is simply one that is reported as having been given or is otherwise made dependent upon another verb or phrase.

Direct Command:	Give me the money.
Indirect Command	Yanis ordered Yorgos to give him the money.
	Yanis asked Yorgos to give him the money.
	Yanis told Yorgos to give him the money.
	Yanis begged Yorgos to give him the money.

Some of these examples of Indirect Commands may not seem like commands but, for grammatical purposes, they are all treated the same way: the subordinate clause is introduced by using να with the verb in the subjunctive, the negative form is μην:

Ο Γιάννης είπε στο Γιώργο να του δώσει τα λεφτά.

= Yanis told Yorgos to give him the money.

Ο Γιάννης ρώτησε το Γιώργο να του δώσει τα λεφτά.

= Yanis asked Yorgos to give him the money.

Ο Γιάννης παρακάλεσε το Γιώργο να μην κρατήσει τα λεφτά.

= Yanis begged Yorgos not to keep the money.


The most common interrogative words:

γιατί	why?
ποιος	who?
πόσοι	how many?
πόσος	how much, how big?
πότε	when?
πού	where?
πώς	how?
τι	what?


  Expressions of Time

Also see:

Adverbs of Time

Days of the Week

Months of the Year

Annual Festivals

The Seasons

Time Ago

Clock Time

Dates

An expression of time is a word or phrase which indicates when something takes place or how long it lasts, for example:

We marched for ten days.

The ship left at dawn.

They are due to arrive at two o'clock.

In Greek‚ expressions of time use the accusative with or without the preposition σε.

The Accusative without the preposition is used to express:

 time when

Την Πέμπτη = on Thursday

 duration of time

τη νύχτα = during the night

 frequency

πολλές φορές = many times

The Accusative with σε is used to express:

 clock time

στις έξι = at six o'clock

 dates

στις πέντε Αυγούστου = on August 5th


There are a few idiomatic expressions which appear to use the genitive but in these cases the genitive follows another word which is to be supplied:

Πρέπει να πάρετε των οχτώμιση.

= You must take the 8.30.(the train/bus of 8.30).

Του αγίου Κωνσταντίνου κάναμε γιορτή.

= On St. Constantine's Day we had a festival.

(On the day of St. Constantine)


Expressing Time "when" with the Accusative Without Using σε

το μεσημέρι	at noon/midday
τον Αύγουστο	in August
τα Χριστούγεννα	at Christmas
την ερχόμενη βδομάδα	next week
το πρωί	in the morning
νύχτα	at night
αυτή την ημέρα	on that day
τα �1998	in 1998
την άνοιξη	in the spring

But note:

σε δύο μέρες	within two days


Expressing Duration of Time with the Accusative Without Using σε

την ημέρα	during the day
τρεις βδομάδες	for three weeks
μίση ώρα	for half an hour
δέκα χρόνια	for ten years


Clock Time

στη μία	at one o'clock
στις δύο	at two o'clock
στις τρέις	at three o'clock
στις εφτάμιση	at seven thirty
στις εννιάμιση	at half past nine
στις δέκα και πέντε	at five past ten
στις έντεκα και είκοσι	at eleven twenty
στις τέσσερις και τέταρτο	at a quarter past four
στις τρείς παρά πέντε	at five to three
στις πέντε παρά τέταρτο	at a quarter to five

But when telling the time the nominative is used:

Τί ώρα είναι;	What time is it?
Είναι μία	it is one o'clock
Είναι εφτάμιση	it is seven thirty
Είναι τέσσερις και τέταρτο	It is four fifteen


Dates (also see Days of the Week, Months of the Year and/or Season of the Year)

στις τρέις Μάη	on May 3rd
στις είκοσι δύο Δεκέμβρη	on December 22nd
στις δέκα Οχτώβρη	on October 10th
But when referring to the 1st of the month the ordinal is used without the preposition:

την πρώτη Γενάρη	on January 1st

Also note: Πόσες έχουμε σήμερα;

= What date is it today? (lit. How many days do we have today?)


Adverbs of Time

σήμερα	today
χτες	yesterday
προχτές	the day before yesterday
αύριο	tomorrow
μεθαύριο	the day after tomorrow
φέτος	this year
πέρσυ	last year
του χρόνου	next year
τις άλλες	recently
τις προάλλες	the other day


Days of the Week

Κυριακή	Sunday ("the Lord's day")
Δευτέρα	Monday
Τρίτη	Tuesday
Τετάρτη	Wednesday
Πέμπτη	Thursday
Παρασκευή	Friday ("preparation day")
Σάββατο	Saturday ("Sabbath")
Σαββατοκυριακό‚	weekend
Note: Except for Friday, Saturday and Sunday, the days of the week are named after their position in the week starting with Sunday. All the names of days are feminine with the exception of Σαββατο (Saturday) which is neuter.


There are two versions of the months, the pure Demotic and the Katharevousa forms which are still used frequently:

	Katharevousa	Demotic
January	Ιανουάριος	Γενάρης
February	Φεβρουάριος	Φλεβάρης
March	Μάρτιος	Μάρτης
April	Απρίλιος	Απρίλης
May	Μάιος	Μάης
June	Ιούνιος	Ιούνης
July	Ιούλιος	Ιούλης
August	Αύγουστος	Αύγουστος
September	Σεπτέμβριος	Σεπτέμβρης
October	Οκτώβριος	Οχτώβρης
November	Νοέμβριος	Νοέμβρης
December	Δεκέμβριος	Δεκέμβρης
Note: All months are masculine.


Greeks Festivals

η Ανάληψη	Ascension
η Απόκρια	carnival
ο Ευαγγελισμός	Annunciation
η Καθάρα Δευτέρα	Shrove Monday
η Κοίμηση	Assumption
η Μεγάλη Εβδομάδα	Holy Week
η Μεγάλη Παρασκευή	Good Friday
η παραμονή	New Year's Eve, Christmas Eve
Πάσχα	Easter
η Πρωτοχρονιά	New Year
η Σαρακοστή	Lent
τα Χριστούγεννα	Christmas


Seasons of the Year

η άνοιξη	spring
το καλοκαίρι	summer
το φθινόπωρο	autumn/fall
ο χειμώνας	winter


There are two common ways to express ago. In both cases, the time expression is in the accusative:

Είδα το φίλο μου εδώ και δέκα μέρες.

= I saw my friend ten days ago.

Είδα το φίλο μου δέκα μέρες πριν.

= I saw my friend ten days ago.


Conditonal Sentences

Conditional Sentences

A conditional sentence is one in which the truth of the main clause is made conditional upon the truth of the subordinate clause. It usually takes the form if X then Y:

If he is breathing, he must be alive.

If you did this, you were foolish.

 Open Conditions

State the condition without assuming or implying that the condition is fulfilled. In this type (in Greek), the "if" clause takes the indicative and the main clause the appropriate part of the verb -- usually the indicative. When referring to the future in the if clause, the simple future without θα is used. The negative particle used is δεν. See the Examples of Open Conditions.

 Subjunctive Conditions

State the condition in such a way that there is an implication that the "if" clause is not true, may not be true or may be true in the future. In this type (in Greek), θα is always used in the main clause and two forms of the past tense may be used in each clause:

Imperfect	to refer to the past, present or future
Pluperfect	to refer to the past.

The negative particle used is δεν. Also see Examples of Subjunctive Conditions.

 Negative Conditions

Normally, the negative particle δεν is used in either the main clause or the subordinate clause. However, if the main clause precedes the subordinate clause, then a negative "if" clause can be expressed with εκτός αν, for example:

Αύριο θα πάμε στο γιαλό εκτός αν βρέξει.

= Tomorrow we will go to the beach if it is not raining. (or...unless it is raining)

 Alternate Conditions

If two (or more) conditions are expressed, then είτε ... είτε is used. The same rules as above apply:

Είτε χορέψεις είτε τραγουδήδεις θα νικήσεις το συναγωνισμό.

= Whether you dance or sing you will win the competition.

Note that it's possible to imply a condition using parataxis:

Κάντε το και θα το μετανοιάσετε.

(If you) do that (and) you will regret it.


Some grammar books describe this as the aorist subjunctive, but, because the simple future is made up of θα + the aorist subjunctive, it is a semantic point which need not trouble the novice.


Sometimes it's possible to have a subjunctive-type condition -- without θα in the main clause -- if the action which did not happen could easily have happened:

Αν με ρώτησες σου απαντούσα.

= If you had asked me I (certainly) would have answered.

However, the novice should stick to the normal rule for using θα.


Examples of Open Conditions

Αν ανασαίνει‚ ζει.

= If he is breathing, he is alive.

Αν έχεις λεφτά να μου τα δώσεις.

= If you have money, give it to me.

Αν το έκανες ανόητος ήσουν.

= If you did it, you were foolish.

Αν έρθουν αύριο θα τους δούμε.

= If they come tomorrow, we will see them.

Αν δεν έρθεις αύριο δε θα σε ξαναπροσκαλέσω

= If you don't come tomorrow, I will not invite you again.


Eamples of Subjunctive Conditions

Αν ανάσανε‚ ζούσε.

= If he were breathing, he would be alive.

Αν το είχες κάνει ανόητος θα ήσουν.

= If you had done it you would have been foolish.

Αν έρχονταν αύριο θα τους βλέπαμε.

= If they were to come tomorrow we should see them.

Αν δεν το είχε πει, κανείς δε θα το ήξερε.

= If he had not said it, no one would have known.


The subordinate clause of a condition (i.e. the "if clause") is called the Protasis.


The main clause of a conditional sentence is called the Apodosis.


Since θα + the imperfect can be used to refer to the past, present or future, it's a matter of context and interpretation how the condition can be interpreted:

Αν το έκανα ανόητος ήμουν.

= If I had done it I would have been foolish.

= If I were doing it I would be foolish.

= If I were to do it I would be foolish.


Purpose Clauses

Purpose Clauses (also see Result Clauses)

A purpose clause (or final clause) is a subordinate clause which gives the intention or purpose behind the action of the main verb:

He came to Athens in order to see the Acropolis.

In English, there are a number of ways of expressing purpose, the easiest of which is to use the infinitive:

He came to Athens to see the Acropolis.

In Greek, the infinitive is not used to express purpose. The most common method is to use a subordinate clause introduced by για, να, or, just να with the verb in the subjunctive. A negative purpose uses the negative particle μην.

΄Ηρθε στην Αθήνα για να δει την Ακρόπολη.

= He came to Athens to see the Acropolis.

΄Ηρθε στην Αθηνα για να μένει κοντά στην Ακρόπολη.

= He came to Athens in order to be living near the Acropolis.

Δος μου το γράμμα να το διαβάσω.

= Give me the letter to read.

Πρέπει να φύγω τώρα για να μην αργήσω

= I must leave so as not to be late.

΄Ετσι φέρεται για να εντυπωσιάσει τις κοπέλλες.

= He acts like this to impress the girls.

A negative purpose can also be introduced with the word μήπως:

Πρέπει να φύγω μήπως αργήσω.

= I must leave lest I be late.


As in most purpose clauses, the aorist subjunctive is used here to express a specific, single purpose: to have a look at the Acropolis


The present subjunctive is used here to express a continuing purpose: to live for the future near the Acropolis.


The preposition για is used in this construction because on its own it can express purpose:

΄Ηρθε για τα λεφτά.

= He came for the money.

(i.e. that was his purpose in coming)


Purpose clauses are also known as final clauses from the Latin finis (end, purpose).


There are a number of ways of Expressing Purpose in English:

I came to Athens to see the Acropolis.

I came to Athens in order to see the Acropolis.

I came to Athens so that I might see the Acropolis.

I came to Athens with the purpose of seeing the Acropolis.


Result Clauses

Result Clauses (also see Purpose Clauses)

A result clause (or consecutive clause) is a subordinate clause which gives the result (intentional or unintentional) of the action of the main verb. There is often a word like so or such in the main clause:

She acted so bravely that everyone praised her.

Don't confuse purpose clauses and result clauses

In Greek‚ result clauses are introduced by a number of expressions such as που‚ �ώστε‚ or για να. If the logic of the consequence rather than its actual occurrence is stressed, then, ώστε να or για να is used.

The negative is δεν, or μην if αν is used:

Είσαι τόσο έξυπνος που όλοι σε θαυμάζουν.

= You are so clever that everyone admires you.

Τόσο γρήγορα έτρεξε ώστε κανέις δεν τον πρόλαβε.

= He ran so quickly that no one caught up with him.

Τόσο γρήγορα τρέχει ώστε να μην την προλάβεις κανείς.

= He runs so quickly that no one can catch her.

Κανείς δεν είναι τόσο ανοήτος για να το πιστεύει.

= No one is so stupid as to believe it.

Note the use of πολύ with an adjective plus για να to express too... to...:

Είναι πολύ ζεστό για να το πιάσεις.

= It is too hot to handle. (literally so that you handle it)


This is especially used after a negative main clause.


Examples of Result Clauses

Είσαι τόσο έξυπνος που όλοι σε θαυμάζουν.

= You are so clever that everyone admires you.

Τόσο γρήγορα έτρεξε ώστε κανέις δε τον πρόλαβε.

= He ran so quickly that no one overtook him.

Τόσο γρήγορα τρέχει ώστε να μην την προλάβει κανείς.

= She runs so quickly that no one overtakes her.

Κανείς είναι τόσο ανοήτος για να το πιστεύει.

= No one is so foolish as to believe it.


Don't Confuse Purpose & Result Clauses

 A purpose clause indicates what the subject of the main clause had in mind or intended when he/she accomplished the action of the main verb:

I bumped into him violently in order to knock him down.

(I intended to knock him down, but the intended result may not have been achieved).

 A result clause indicates what happens as a result of the main clause but indicates nothing about the motive:

I bumped into him so violently that I knocked him down.

(I did not intend to knock him down, it was an accident but as a result of my careless action I did, in fact, knock him down).

In most cases it's easy to distinguish between purpose and result clauses. Usually result clauses include such expressions as so, such, so greatly or so much (Greek = τόσο...) in the main clause.


Relative Clauses

Relative Clauses (also see Relative Pronouns)

A relative clause is one which is introduced by a relative pronoun and provides extra information about a word in the main clause. In this way it is like an adjective and so is sometimes called an adjectival clause. It is used mainly to join two smaller sentences which have a noun in common to form a larger sentence:

The man is my brother. You see the man.

The man whom you see is my brother.

In this example, the noun common to the two smaller sentences is the word man. When the two sentences are combined, the second instance of the word man is replaced by the relative pronoun. The word which the relative pronoun refers to in the main clause is called the antecedent.

In Greek, the relative pronoun should have the same number and gender as its antecedent (the word it refers to in the main clause) but its case should be decided by the role it has in its own clause. The word should is used because, although the relative pronoun ο οποίος can indicate number, gender and case, the far more commonly used relative pronoun που is indeclinable so does not. Consequently, when που is used, there can be some ambiguity:

Ο άντρας που στέκεται κοντά στο σπίτι είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man who is standing near the house is my brother.

Ο άντρας που βλέπεις είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man whom you see is my brother.

Ο άντρας που χτύπησε το παλικάρι είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man who struck the lad is my brother.

Ο άντρας που η γυναίκα του πέθανε είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man whose wife died is my brother.

Ο άντρας που του πούλησες το αυτοκίνητό σου είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man to whom you sold your car is my brother.

If precision or lack of ambiguity is required, then, ο οποίος is used:

Ο άντρας του οποίου η γυναίκα πέθανε είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man whose wife died is my brother.

Ο άντρας στον οποίον πούλησες το αυτοκίνητό σου είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man to whom you sold your car is my brother.

Ο άντρας για τον οποίον οργάνωσες το δανείο είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man for whom you organized the loan is my brother.

This is also used when the relative pronoun is used to refer to a whole clause:

Αν πάω στην Ελλάδα‚ πράγμα το οποίο ονειρεύομαι κάθε νύχτα‚ θα πάω την άνοιξη.

= If I go to Greece, (a thing) which I dream about every night, I will go in the spring.


Since it is not clear whether που represents the subject or object of the subordinate verb the sentence could also mean:

Ο άντρας που χτύπησε το παλικάρι είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= The man whom the lad struck is my brother.


The possessive pronoun is used here to make it clear that the relative pronoun represents a genitive:

Ο άντρας που η γυναίκα του πέθανε είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= (literally) The man who his wife died is my brother.


The weak pronoun του is used here to make it clear that the relative pronoun represents the indirect object:

Ο άντρας που του πούλησες το αυτοκίνητό σου είναι ο αδερφός μου.

= (literally) The man who you sold your car to him is my brother.


Participles

Participles (also see The Uses of Participles and/or The Genitive Absolute)

A participle is a non-finite part of a verb which has an adjectival use, for example, carrying, carried, having carried or being carried.

In Greek, there are three participles, two of which can be used just like adjectives and so follow the rules of concord for adjectives. The other participle does not decline and so does not change form.

A participle, being derived from a verb, has some of the characteristics of a verb, for example, tense. It can have the same relationship to nouns as the verb in that it too can have a direct object.

Not all Greek verbs have all three participles and many lack one or more forms. The three participles are:

Present Active Participle

Present Passive Participle

Past Passive Participle


In addition to the three participles of Standard Demotic, there are sometimes other forms of the participle derived from the classical language and used in formal, Katharevousa-like speech:

Present Active	συμπαθών	sympathizing
Aorist Active	γράψας	having written
Aorist Passive	συλληφθείς	having been arrested
Perfect Passive	υπογεγραμμένος	having been signed
All these forms are fully declinable and, apart from the ones which have become "fossilized" as part of the normal vocabulary, should be avoided by the novice.


The Past Passive Participle

The Past Passive Participle (also see Participles and/or The Uses of Participles)

The past passive participle (being passive in meaning) can only be derived from verbs which can have the aorist passive form. The meaning is based on the past passive meaning of the verb, for example, having been tied.

The participle can usually be derived from the aorist passive form of the verb by removing the ending and adding -μένος:

δέ-θηκα >> δε - μένος	having been tied (tied)
αγαπή - θηκα >> αγαπη - μένος	having been loved  (loved)

However, as with all forms of the Greek verb, it is wise to consult a dictionary for the correct form since there are many exceptions to the above rule.

This participle declines like the 1st & 2nd declension adjective καλός. If the participle is made negative, then, μην is used.

Examples:

Βρήκαμε μια κρυμμένη σπηλιά.

= We found a hidden cave.

Είμαστε πολύ κουρασμένοι.

= We are very tired.

Αποχαιρέτησα τους καλεσμένους φίλους.

= I bade farewell to my invited friends.

Δε καλοδεχτήκαμε τους μην καλεσμένους.

= We did not welcome the uninvited.


There are, however, some past participles whose meaning is active. These are usually from intransitive verbs but not invariably:

αποφασισμένος‚	having decided
γερασμένος,	having grown old
πεσμένος,	having fallen
φαγωμένος,	having eaten.


There are many exceptions to this rule. If the aorist passive uses -τ- before the ending, then the final consonant before the ending is given voice when the participle ending is added:

ταράχ - τηκα >> ταραγ - μένος

There are numerous other exceptions. The novice should consult a grammar for the correct form.


Not all verbs have passive participles, usually because of their meaning:

έχω	I have
θέλω	I want
ξέρω	I know
περιμένω	wait for


It is possible for a past participle to have a present meaning:

κουρασμένος	tired
However, if you wanted to, you could justify it: tired (as a result of having become exhausted).


The participle κρυμμένη is accusative feminine singular to agree with the noun σπηλιά.


The participle κουρασμένοι is nominative masculine plural because it agrees with the subject of the verb we.


The participle καλεσμένους is accusative masculine plural because it agrees with the implied object ανθρώπους which is the same.


The Present Active Participle

The Present Active Participle (also see Participles and/or The Uses of Participles)

The Present Active Participle, being active in meaning, can only be derived from verbs which can have an active form. The meaning is based on the present active meaning of the verb, e.g. tying.

The participle is formed by adding:

 the ending -οντας to the present stem of 1st Conjugation verbs‚ δέν - ωντας

 the ending -ώντας to the present stem of 2nd Conjugation verbs‚ αγαπ - ώντας

This participle does not decline and so does not change form.

If the participle is made negative, then μην is used.

Examples:

Τρέχοντας έφτασε στο σπίτι.

= He arrived home running.

Διαβάζοντας ένα βιβλίο αποκοιμήθηκα.

= I fell asleep reading a book.

Περπατώντας στην αγορά συναντήσαμε το δάσκαλό μας.

= Walking in the market we met our teacher.

Note: The English present participle is not always translated into Greek as a participle:

Σταμάτησε να μιλάει.

= He stopped talking.


The present participle is present relative to the time of the main verb (i.e. it indicates contemporaneous action) whatever the tense of the main verb is:

Μας δέχτηκε γελώντας.

= He received us smiling.

Θα το κάνεις γελώντας.

= You will do it smiling.


Because the present participle practically always goes with the subject of the verb, it does not need to decline.


The one exception to this rule is the present active participle from the verb "to be":

είμαι >> όντας

It, however, is rarely used.


The participle καλεσμένους is accusative masculine plural because it agrees with the noun φίλους which is the same.


It is, however, possible for the present participle to have a past meaning:

Φτάνωντας στην Αθήνα πήγα αμέσως στην Ακρόπολη.

= Having arrived in Athens, I went immediately to the Acropolis.

This is probably possible because there is no normal Demotic past active participle.


The Present Passive Participle

The Present Passive Participle (also see Participles and/or The Uses of Participles)

The present passive participle, being passive in meaning, can only be derived from verbs which can have a passive meaning. The meaning is based on the present passive meaning of the verb, e.g. being tied. In Greek, this participle is not as common as the active form.

The participle can usually be derived from the present stem of the verb by removing the ending and adding -όμενος:

δεν - όμενος

This participle declines like the 1st & 2nd Declension Adjective καλός. If the participle is made negative then μην is used.

Examples:

Η Ελένη διάβασε το γράμμα με τρεμάμενα χέρια.

= Eleni read the letter with trembling hands.

Οι καθηγητές χωρίστηκαν σε αντιμαχόμενα στρατόπεδα.

= The professors separated into opposing camps.

Θα σε δω την ερχόμενη βδομάδα.

= I will see you in the coming week.

Ο εξεταζόμενος έδειχνε νευριασμένος.

= The examinee (i.e. exam candidate) appeared nervous.


The present passive participle tends to be used with verbs derived from Katharevousa rather than Demotic, consequently, they are not very common. Verbs belonging to the 2nd Conjugation do not normally form this participle.


Some verbs form the present passive participle by adding -ούμενος or -άμενος to the stem:

βρισκούμενος

κρατούμενος

τρεμάμενος


The participle ερχόμενη is usually treated as if it were an adjective meaning next rather than a participle. A number of these present passive participles are now regarded as adjectives or even nouns:

ο εμπορευόμενος	merchant
τα πετούμενα	birds
τα πλεόμενα	vessels, ships


A periphrastic expression is one which uses a roundabout way to express an idea, usually because there is no simpler way of doing so.


The Uses of Participles

The Uses of Participles (also see Participles and/or The Genitive Absolute)

In Greek, participles are used like adjectives or to express ideas which, in English, are usually expressed by subordinate clauses introduced by who, when or while.

The aorist passive participle is used like an adjective:

Είδα ένα πεθαμένο σκυλί στο δρόμο.

= I saw a dead dog in the road.

Οι τοίχοι ήταν βαμμένοι άσπροι.

= The walls were painted white.

The present participles, although used to express the manner or way in which the action of the verb is done:

Κατέβηκε τη σκάλα τραγουδώντας.

= She came down the stairs singing.

can be used to replace different types of subordinate clauses:

 Temporal

Ανοίγοντας την πόρτα άκουσα ένα περίεργο ήχο.

= Opening the door I heard a strange sound. (= When I opened...)

 Causal

Μην μπορώντας να ακούσω πλησίασα πιο κοντά.

= Not being able to hear I went closer. (= Since I was not able...)

 Conditional

Επισκεπτόμενος την Αθήνα θα μπορέσεις να δεις την Ακρόπολη.

= Visiting Athens you will be able to see the Acropolis. (= If you visit...)

 Concessive

Μιλώντας την ίδια γλώσσα δεν συνεννοηθήκαμε.

= Speaking the same language we did not communicate. (= Although we spoke...)


The Genitive Absolute

The Genitive Absolute (also see Participles and/or The Uses of the Participle)

The Genitive Absolute is a construction inherited from the classical language and is found in only a few stock phrases of formal speech. It is a use of the genitive of a participle to introduce a subordinate clause. Only a very few participles are used in this way and the novice is advised to avoid it if possible:

Δεδομένου ότι είναι καλοκαίρι ο καιρός είναι άσχημος.

= Given the fact that it is summer the weather is terrible.

Προκειμένου να πάμε στη δουλειά‚ καλύτερα να πάμε στο γιαλό;

= Rather than go to work wouldn't it be better to go to the beach?

Προκειμένου να βρέχει‚ καλύτερα να μείνουμε στο σπίτι.

= Since it is raining, it would be better for us to stay at home.


The construction is called the genitive absolute because it is set free (Latin = absolutus) grammatically from the rest of the sentence.


Causal Clauses

Causal Clauses provide the reason or explanation behind the action of the main verb. They are introduced by any appropriate word or phrase. The main conjunctions are:

1 γιατι (because)

Κάθε καλοκαίρι πηγαίνω στην Ελλάδα γιατι μ΄ αρέσει τόσο πολύ.

= Every summer I go to Greece because I love it so much.

2 αφού (since, because)

Αφού ο καιρός είναι άσχημος ας μείνουμε στο σπίτι.

= Since the weather is bad let's stay at home.

3 επειδή (since, because)

Επειδή ήμουν άρρωστος δεν πήγα στο σχολείο.

= Since I was unwell I didn't go to school.

4 μιά και (since, seeing that)

Μιά και ο καίρος είναι καλός ας πάμε στο γιαλό.

= Since the weather is good let's go to the beach.

5 που (that, because)

Λυπάμαι πολύ που απορρίφτηκες στις εξετάσεις.

= I am very sorry that you failed the exams.


The word γιατι, although it has two syllables, is usually written without an accent to distinguish it from the interrogative word γιατί which does have an accent:

Γιατί το είπες;

= Why did you say it?


This could also be analyzed as an indirect statement. The word που is used a great deal in Greek in a variety of different ways.


Clauses of Fearing

Clauses of Fearing are those introduced by a verb or an expression indicating fear, for example:

He fled out of fear of being killed.

We were afraid to enter the woods.

There are two basic constructions:

1 If the fear can be expressed in English with an infinitive, then να + the subjunctive is used. In this construction, the negative is μην:

Φοβόμαστε να μπούμε στο δάσος.

= We were afraid to enter the woods.

Φοβάμαι να μπαίνω σε δάση.

= I am afraid to go into woods.

Φοβήθηκα να τον πλησιάσω.

= I was afraid to approach him.

Φοβήθηκα να μη της το πω.

= I was afraid to tell her.

2 If the infinitive cannot be used in English, then the construction involves a subordinate clause introduced by μην or more often μήπως. If the fear is for the past, then the indicative is used; if for the present or future then the subjunctive. The negative is δεν:

Φοβάμαι μήπως δεν έρθει.

= I am afraid that she is not coming/may not come.

Φοβάμαι μήπως το έχασα.

= I am afraid that I lost it.

΄Εφυγαν από φόβο μην οι ασυνόμοι φτάσουν.

= They fled in fear that the police would arrive.

Δεν το έκανα μήπως δεν σου αρέσε.

= I did not do it lest (for fear) you did not like it.


In English, the infinitive is used when the subject of the verb of fearing is the same as the subject of the infinitive, for example:

We were afraid to enter the woods.

We were afraid; we did not enter the woods.


In this example, the present subjunctive is used because it is a general fear and not simply referring to a specific occasion.


In this example, the aorist subjunctive is used because it is a specific occasion: we were afraid, at that time, to enter the woods.


Concessive Clauses

A concessive clause is one which is introduced by such words as "although" and "even if". It admits that the main clause is true despite what is stated in the subordinate clause, for example:

Although he was a very old man, he reached the top of the mountain.

Even if you were not my brother, I would still help you.

In Greek, the main expressions which introduce concessive clauses are μολονότι‚ αν και and και αν. The last two phrases introduce conditional clauses which have a concessive force:

Μολονότι είναι ΄Αγγλος μιλάει πολύ καλά τα Ελληνικά.

= Although he is English he speaks Greek very well.

Θα το φάω αν και δε μ΄ αρέσει.

= I will eat it even though I don't like it.

Αν και είναι μεγάλος φέρεται σαν παιδί.

= Even though he is an adult he behaves like a child.

Και αν είναι πολύ έξυπνος πρέπει να φέρεται με αξιοπρέπεια.

= Even if he is very clever he should behave with dignity.

Sometimes a participle can have a concessive force:

Και πεθαμένη ακόμα με βασανίζει.

= Even (though she is) dead she still troubles me.


The phrases αν και and και αν (even if) have more or less the same meaning and introduce a conditional clause that follows the rules for such a clause.


The word μολονότι is made up of the words με όλον ότι and literally means something like "(even) with the entire situation that..."


Temporal Clauses

A temporal clause is a subordinate clause where the relationship between the action of the subordinate verb and the action of the main verb is one of time, for example:

Wipe your feet before you come in.

When he got to Athens, he went straight to the Acropolis.

In Greek, temporal clauses can be introduced by a variety of conjunctions. The most common are:

αφού	after, when
ενώ	while
μόλις	as soon as
όταν	when
πριν	before
σαν	when

Verbs in the subordinate clause follow a rule which can be simplified as:

 the verb is in the indicative when it refers to the past

 the verb is in the present subjunctive when it refers to the future.

Examples of Temporal Clauses


Greek has more Temporal Conjunctions than English:

μόλις	as soon as
άμα	as soon as
αφότου	since
σαν	when
όταν	when
αφού	after, when
ενώ	while
όσο	as long as
εφόσον	as long as
καθώς	as
έως	until
ωσότου	until
ώσπου	until
μέχρι	until
πριν	before
πρότου	before


including the future relative to the time of the main verb as in:

Εμαθα για την Ελλάδα πριν παω στην χώρα.

= I learned about Greece before going to the country.


The conjunctions πριν and πρότου always take the subjunctive (sometimes with the word να although it is not required).


Examples of Temporal Clauses

Examples of Temporal Clauses (return to Temporal Clauses)

Πρέπει να φύγεις πριν φτάσει ο άντρας μου.

= You must leave before my husband arrives.

΄Εμαθα για την Ελλάδα πριν παω στην χώρα.

= I learned about Greece before going to the country.

Πάντα βλέπω πριν πηδήσω.

= I always look before I leap.

΄Οταν τελείωσε το βιβλίο μου το έδωσε.

= When he finished the book he gave it to me.

΄Οταν τελειώσεις το βιβλίο θα μου το δώσεις;

= When you finish the book will you give it to me?

΄Αφου έφτασε στην Ελλάδα άρχισε να μάθει τα Ελληνικά.

= When she reached Greece she began to learn Greek.

Δεν έφυγαν μέχρι άκουσαν το κουδούνι.

= They did not leave until they heard the bell.

Μόλις άκουσαν το κουδούνι έφυγαν.

= As soon as they heard the bell they left.

Θα φύγουν μόλις ακούσουν το κουδούνι.

= They will leave as soon as they hear the bell.

Ενώ έμενα στην Ελλάδα μάθαινα τα Ελληνικά.

= While I was staying in Greece I was learning Greek.


The temporal conjunctions ενώ‚ καθώς and αφότου never introduce a clause with a subjunctive verb.


The temporal conjunction όταν (when used to introduce a subjunctive) does not need the particle να.


The Historic Present (or graphic or vivid present) is the use of the present tense to refer to a past event in a vivid manner.


The Predicate is what is said of the subject. In the sentence "The cow jumped over the moon", the cow is the subject and jumped over the moon is the predicate because that is what is said about the cow. In this example, the predicate is made up of the verb jumped and the prepositional phrase over the moon.


Impersonal Verbs

Impersonal Verbs (also see Common Impersonal Verbs)

An impersonal verb is one which does not have a person (or living thing) as its subject. The subject is an infinitive, a subordinate clause or the pronoun "it". In Greek, there are very few verbs which are exclusively impersonal but there are many which can be used both impersonally and with an animate subject.

Aside from verbs which refer to things such as weather like χιονίζει (it is snowing) and ξημερώνει (day is breaking), impersonal verbs have a subordinate clause introduced by να‚ ότι‚ or πως as their subject:

Πρέπει να φύγω τώρα.

= I must leave now.

Φαίνεται ότι έχει φύγει.

= It seems that he has left.

Sometimes, the subject of the subordinate clause is placed at the beginning of the sentence so that it looks as if it is the subject of the impersonal verb:

΄Ολοι μας πρέπει να φύγουμε τώρα.

= We must all leave now.

It's also possible to have an impersonal phrase:

Δεν είναι δυνατό να φτάσουμε στα άστρα.

= It is not possible for us to reach the stars.


= (that I must leave now) is necessary


= (that he has left) appears to be the case


= (that we must all leave now) is necessary


Common Impersonal Verbs

Common Impersonal Verbs (also see Impersonal Verbs)

The following verbs are exclusively impersonal:

βροντάει	it thunders
πρέπει	it is necessary
πρόκειται	it is a question of
συμβαίνει	it occurs, happens
χιονίζει	it is snowing

The following verbs can be used impersonally or with an animate subject. They usually have a slightly different meaning in each usage:

βρέχει	it is raining
γίνεται	it happens
μπορεί	it is possible
τυχαίνει	it happens
φαίνεται	it seems

The following impersonal verbs can have an animate subject when used in the passive:

βραδιάζει	evening falls
νυχτώνει	night falls
ξημερ�ώνει	day breaks


but γίνομαι = I become


but μπορώ = I can/am able to

Note the difference between these two sentences:

Μπορούν να βλέπουν.

= They can see.

Μπορεί να βλέπουν.

= It is possible that they see.


but φαίνομαι = I appear


but

Ξημερώθηκε διαβάζοντας.

= He spent all night reading.


but βρέχω = I wet


  Word Order

There are important differences between Greek and English word order. In English, word order is much more essential to the meaning of the sentence. Changing the word order of an English sentence can drastically change the meaning or even make it meaningless, for example:

The master killed the slave.

The slave killed the master.

The master slave the killed.

In Greek, word order is much more flexible since it is the endings of the words which determine the relationship between them and the consequent meaning of the sentence. However, there are some rules governing word order which must be borne in mind and, in some cases, be adhered to.

 Noun Phrases

The article always comes before or precedes its noun. Any qualifying words precede or come before the noun or between the article and the noun. The main exception to this is the case of demonstrative pronouns and the word όλος when it comes before the article:

η γυναίκα

πολλές γυναίκες

η όμορφη γυναίκα

αυτή η γυναίκα

όλος ο κόσμος

 The Simple Sentence

The usual word order for a Greek sentence when there is no particular emphasis on any word is subject > verb > object. An equally common order is verb > subject > object:

Οι τουρίστες θαυμάζουν τον Παρθενώνα.

Θαυμάζουν οι τουρίστες τον Παρθενώνα.

If emphasis is to be given to the subject, then it is put at the end of the sentence. If emphasis is given to the object or verb, then they are put at the beginning of the sentence. In questions the verb comes after the interrogative word:

Τί θέλει ο κύριος;

 Subordinate Clauses

The same rule applies as for simple sentences when the clause is introduced by words like αφού‚ γιατί‚ επειδή‚ ότι and πως:

΄Ολος ο κοσμος ξέρει ότι ο Μεγαλέξανδρος κατάκτησε σχέδον όλη την οικουμένη.

In clauses introduced by να, the verb comes first:

In clauses introduced by the verb, the verb comes first:

Ο δάσκαλος ήθελε να μάθει όλη η τάξη το ποίημα.

In complex sentences, some subordinate clauses precede the main clause while some follow it:

Σαν πήγα στην Αθήνα είδα την Ακρόπολη.

= When I went to Athens I saw the Acropolis.

Πήγα στην Αθήνα για να δω την Ακρόπολη.

= I went to Athens in order to see the Acropolis.

 Other Rules

There are other miscellaneous rules‚ mainly concerning weak pronouns, which must be followed:

 θα always comes before the verb:

θα δούμε

 δεν always comes before θα :

δε θα δούμε

 Weak pronouns come between θα and the verb:

θα τα δούμε

 Weak pronouns come before the verb but after a participle or imperative:

τον περιμένουμε

περιμένοντάς τον

περίμενέ τον

 In the case of weak pronouns, the accusative goes closer to the verb than the genitive:

θα σου τα δωσω

δος τα μου


If the adjective is put after the noun then the article is repeated:

η γυναίκα η όμορφη


If one of these words is used with an adjective, then, it can come after the article:

η όμορφη αυτή γυναίκα


When the word όλος follows or comes after the article, it does not mean all but, rather, entire:

όλα τα νησιά

= all the islands

το όλο νησί

= the entire island


The subject can be preceded by connecting words (i.e. words connecting the sentence to the previous sentence) and can be qualified by other words or phrases. So, for the subject, it is possible to have: connecting words + subject + attributes of subject


The predicate can be made up of direct objects, indirect objects and adverbial expressions modifying the verb. So, for the predicate, it is possible to have: direct object + indirect object + adverbial phrases + verb


If σαν is being used as a preposition, it is followed by the accusative; if it is being used as a conjunction, then it introduces an elliptical phrase in the nominative:

Φέρεται σαν στρατιώτης (φέρεται).

= He behaves like a soldier (behaves).


Comparison

 Comparison (also see The Comparison of Adjectives)

Comparison is used when two things are compared in some way. The constructions vary depending whether nouns or other things are being compared.

 Nouns and Pronouns Directly Compared

The comparison is made using the preposition από or the conjunction σαν:

Ο Γιάννης είναι ψηλότερος απ΄ τον Πέτρο.

= Yanis is taller than Petros.

Η Ελένη είναι πιο ομορφή απ΄ τη Φρόσω.

= Eleni is more beautiful than Phroso.

Είναι πλούσιος σαν βασιλιάς.

= He is (as) rich as a king.

Είναι πλούσιος σαν τον Κροίσο.

= He is (as) rich as Croesus.

 Verbs & Phrases

The comparison is made with the phrases παρά, απ΄ όσο or σα να:

Στην Ελλάδα ο καιρός είναι πιο καλός παρά στην Αγγλία.

= In Greece the weather is better than in England.

Περισσότερο μιλάει παρά ακούει.

= He talks more than he listens.

Πολλές φορές είναι καλλύτερο να ακούς παρά να μιλάς.

= Often it is better to listen than to speak.

Είναι πιο αργά παρ΄ ό‚τι νομίζετε.

= It is later than you think.

Η γυναίκα έφαγε περισσότερο απ΄ όσο ο άντρας της.

= The woman ate more than her husband (did).

Ο δάσκαλος μ΄ έδειρε σα να ήμουν εγκληματίας.

= The teacher beat me as though I were a criminal.

Μου μίλησε σα να με γνώρισε.

= He spoke to me as if he knew me.


Sometimes the genitive of the thing being compared is used with weak pronouns:

Ο Γιάννης είναι ψηλότερός μου.

= Yanis is taller than me.

Novices should limit themselves to the normal construction -- από.


The sentence:

Η γυναίκα έφαγε περισσότερο απ΄ τον άνδρα της

could imply that the woman ate her husband and then something else!


Apposition

When a word or phrase is placed beside a noun or pronoun to provide additional information about it, then the word or phrase is said to be in apposition to the noun or pronoun. The word or phrase in apposition, being a sort of adjectival expression, agrees with the noun or pronoun in both gender and case -- usually the nominative or accusative.

Ο Πέτρος, ο γιος μου, θα γυρίσει αύριο.

= Petros, my son, will return tomorrow.

Ο φίλος μου, ο ΄Αρης‚ είναι καλλιτέχνης.

= My friend Aris is an artist.

Χτες είδα την κυρία Κωστάκη, τη δασκάλα μου.

= Yesterday I saw Mrs. Kostaki, my teacher.


Correlatives

Words are said to be correlatives when they occur together as a pair relating two words, phrases or clauses.

When pronouns and pronominal adverbs are used as correlatives, they correspond to each other as antecedent and relative.

΄Οσα δίνεις τόσα παίρνεις.

= You take as much as you give.

Examples of Correlative Sentences

Correlatives

Interrogative	Demonstrative	Relative
ποιός	αυτός‚ εκείνος	που‚ όποιος
πόσος	τόσος	όσος
πού	εκεί	όπου
πότε	τότε	όποτε
πώς	έτσι	όπως
τί	αυτό‚ εκείνο	ό‚τι
τί	τέτοιος	οποιοσδήποτε


A Pronominal Adverb is an adverb which can stand in place of a noun:

εκεί >> in place of >> η Αθήνα

συχνά >> in place of >> πολλές φορές


Examples of Correlative Sentences

και εγώ και εσύ

= both I and you

ούτε ο Γιάννης ούτε η Ελένη

= neither Yanis nor Eleni

Αγαπάει την άνεση αυτός που αγαπάει την ειρήνη.

= He who loves leisure loves peace.

Είναι τέτοιος όπως περίγραψες.

= He is such as you described.

Πήρε τόσα όσα ήθελε.

= She took as much as she wanted.

Ψπήρχαν τόσοι άντρες όσες γυναίκες.

= There were as many men as women.

΄Οσο περισσότερο έβρεχε τόσο περισσότερο χαμήλωνε το κέφι μου.

= The more it rained the more my spirits dropped.


ποιός	= who?
αυτός‚ εκείνος	= he, that one
που‚ όποιος	= who


πού	= where?
εκεί	= there
όπου	= where, wherever


πώς	how?
έτσι	thus, in that way
όπως	as, however


πόσος	= how much?
τόσος	= so much
όσος	= as much


πότε	= when?
τότε	= then
όποτε	= when, whenever


τί	= what?
αυτό‚ εκείνο	= that
ό‚τι	= that, whatever


τί (λογής)	= what sort of?
τέτοιος	= of such a sort
οποιοδήποτε	= who, which, as, of whatever sort


The interrogative form is for asking questions:

Ποιός είναι;

= Who is it?


The demonstrative form is for (for example) giving the answer:

Που είναι; Είναι εκεί.

= Where is it? It is there.


The relative form is for introducing a subordinate clause:

Ποιός είναι εκείνος; Είναι αυτός που κέρδισε το Λοττο.

= Who is that? He is the man who won the lottery.


An Antecedent is a word in the main clause which is referred to in the subordinate clause.

Relative is the name given to a word in the subordinate clause which refers to a word in the main clause.


Numbers

 Numbers (also see Table of Numbers)

There are two types of numbers:

 Cardinal Numbers

 Ordinal Numbers

All Cardinal Numbers are indeclinable adjectives except the following numbers:

one -- this is the same as the indefinite article.

three

four

two hundred to nine hundred

thousand

All Ordinal Numbers are 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives, for example, πρώτος πρώτη πρώτο = first.

Also see:

Cardinal & Ordinal Numbers

Other Types of Numbers

Decimal Points

Fractions

Half

Zero


Cardinal Numbers are used for counting, for example, one, two, three, etc.


Ordinal Numbers are used to place things in order, for example, first, second, third, etc. Greek ordinal numbers are all 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives.


The Declension of τέσσερις (four)

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τέσσερις	τέσσερις	τέσσερα
Acc.	τέσσερις	τέσσερις	τέσσερα
Gen.	τεσσάρων	τεσσάρων	τεσσάρων

Note: δεκατέσσαρις (fourteen) also declines like this.


The Declension of τρείς (three)

Plural

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nom.	τρεις	τρεις	τρία
Acc..	τρεις	τρεις	τρία
Gen..	τριών	τριών	τριών

Note: δεκατρέις (thirteen) also declines like this.


Hundreds (from two hundred to nine hundred) and the number one thousand are declinable 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives:

διακόσιοι	διακόσιες	διακόσια
τριακόσιοι	τριακόσιες	τριακόσια
χίλιοι	χίλιες	χίλια


Expressing Fractions & Half

Expressing Fractions & Half (also see Numbers)

{bmc.bullet.bmp} Fractions

The cardinal in combination with the ordinal number is used:

ένα τρίτο	a/one third
δύο τρίτα	two thirds
ένα τέταρτο	a/one quarter
τρία τέταρτα	three quarters
{bmc.bullet.bmp} Half is a 2nd Declension neuter noun -- το μισό:

Στο σεισμό το μισό της πόλης αφανίστηκε.

= In the earthquake half of the city disappeared.

The adjective half is the 1st & 2nd Declension Adjective μισός μισή μισό meaning half:

Το αγόρι έφαγε ένα μισό ψωμί.

= The boy ate half a loaf.

In combination with other numbers an indeclinable suffix is used:

-ήμισι when the number ends in a consonant

-μισι when the number ends in a vowel:

τρεισήμισι (3½)

δεκάμισι (10½)

The number 1½ is an adjective: ενάμισης ενάμιση ενάμισι


Thousand ... Thousands

Χίλιοι ... Χιλιάδες (Thousand ... Thousands) (also see Numbers)

The Greek word for thousand behaves in different ways depending on whether it is singular or plural.

 Singular

When talking about one thousand of something the word is χίλιοι. It is a 1st & 2nd Declension Adjective which has the same number and case as the noun it describes (also see Numbers and Gender):

Χίλιοι άνδρες διώκουν χίλιες γυναίκες.

= A Thousand men chase a thousand women.

Ο δάσκαλος πρέπει να έχει χίλια βιβλία στο σπίτι του.

= The teacher must have a thousand books in his house.

 Plural

When talking about thousands of something, the word is χιλιάδες. It is a 1st Declension feminine noun which declines and the word which is being described in thousands is in apposition to it:

΄Εχω είκοσι χιλάδες δραχμές στην τσέπη μου.

= I have twenty thousand drachmas in my pocket.

Ο δάσκαλος πρέπει να έχει δέκα χιλιάδες βιβλία στο σπίτι του.

= The teacher must have ten thousand books in his house.

Note: the Greek convention for writing numbers in thousands is to use a period rather than a comma, consequently, 3.500 = three thousand five hundred and not three point five.


Number Chart

Number Chart (also see Numbers)

Greeks use the Arabic numeral system, however, sometimes the cumbersome ancient Greek system is used. For best viewing, you may need to Resize or Maximize this window.

Arabic	Greek	Cardinal Numbers	Ordinal Numbers
1	α΄	ένας	πρώτος
2	β΄	δύο	δεύτερος
3	γ΄	τρεις	τρίτος
4	δ΄	τέσσερις	τέταρτος
5	ε΄	πέντε	πέμπτος
6	στ΄	έξι	έκτος
7	ζ΄	εφτά	έβδομος
8	η΄	οχτώ	όγδοος
9	θ΄	εννιά	ένατος
10	ι΄	δέκα	δέκατος
11	ια΄	έντεκα	ενδέκατος
12	ιβ΄	δώδεκα	δωδέκατος
13	ιγ΄	δεκατρείς	δέκατος τρίτος
14	ιδ΄	δεκατέσσαρις	δέκατος τέταρτος
15	ιε΄	δεκαπέντε	δέκατος πέμπτος
16	ι	δεκαέξι	δέκατος έκτος
17	ιζ΄	δεκαεφτά	δέκατος έβδομος
18	ιη΄	δεκαοχτώ	δέκατος όγδοος
19	ιθ΄	δεκαεννιά	δέκατος ένατος
20	κ΄	είκοσι	εικοστός
21	κα΄	είκοσι ένας	εικοστός πρώτος
22	κβ΄	είκοσι δύο	εικοστόςδεύτερος
30	λ΄	τριάντα	τριακοστός
40	μ΄	σαράντα	τεσσαρακοστός
50	ν΄	πενήντα	πεντηκοστός
60	ξ΄	εξήντα	εξηκοστός
70	ο΄	εβδομήντα	εβδομηκοστός
80	π΄	ογδόντα	ογδοηκοστός
90	--	ενενήντα	ενενηκοστός
100	ρ΄	εκατό	εκατοστός
101	ρα΄	εκατόν ένας	εκατοστός πρώτος
102	ρβ΄	εκατό δύο	εκατοστός δεύτερος
200	σ΄	διακόσιοι	διακοσιοστός
300	τ΄	τριακόσιοι	τριακοσιοστός
400	υ΄	τετρακόσιοι	τετρακοσιοστός
500	φ΄	πεντακόσιοι	πεντακοσιοστός
600	χ΄	εξακόσιοι	εξακοσιοστός
700	ψ΄	εφτακόσιοι	εφτακοσιοστός
800	ω΄	οχτακόσιοι	οχτακοσιοστός
900	--	εννιακόσιοι	εννιακοσιοστός
1.000	,α	χίλιοι	χιλιοστός
2.000	‚β	δύο χιλιάδες	δισχιλιοστός
10.000	‚ι	δέκα χιλιάδες	δεκακισχιλιοστός
100.000	‚ρ	εκατό χιλιάδες	εκατοντακισχιλιοστός
1.000.000		ένα εκατομμύριο	εκατομμυριοστός
1.000.000.000		ένα δισεκατομμύριο	δισεκατομμυριοστός


The ancient Greek system was based on the alphabet:

α    β΄    γ΄

A diacriticic (accent) was used with the letter to show that it was being employed as a number. Note that obsolete letters were used for the numbers 6, 90 and 900:

digamma	koppa	sampi

This system is only occasionally used for special purposes, for example, in the preface of a book much as Roman numerals are used in English.


There are a few Greek numerals which use archaic letters which failed to survive into the standard classical language:

6 and numbers containing 6. The letter is called stigma because it looks like a combination of ς and τ (and is often written as such -- στ) but it is actually a modern form of the archaic letter digamma which gave us the letter f.

90 and numbers containing 90s. The letter is called koppa and is the origin of the letter q.

900 and numbers containing 900s. The letter is called sampi and had a somewhat sibilant sound.


This is the same as the indefinite article.


This sometimes has the accent on the last syllable -- δυό.


This is sometimes spelled επτά


this is sometimes spelled οκτώ.


This is sometimes spelled εντέκατος.


This is sometimes spelled δεκάξι.


Greek uses a comma rather than a period for the decimal point:

15,4 -- δεκαπέντε κόμμα τέσσαρα (fifteen point four, not fifteen thousand four-hundred)


Other Types of Numbers

  Other Types of Numbers (also see Numbers)

 Multiple numbers are of the form: single, double, triple, quadruple, etc.

 Proportional numbers are of the form: twice, three times, four times, etc.

 Approximate numbers are of the form: about 10, about 20, etc.

 Group numbers are of the form: unit, duo, trio, etc.

Multiple	Proportional	Approximate	Group
απλός			μονάδα
διπλός	διπλάσιος		δυάδα
τριπλός	τριπλάσιος		τριάδα
τετραπλός	τετραπλάσιος		τετράδα
πενταπλός	πενταπλάσιος		πεντάδα
εξαπλός	εξαπλάσιος		εξάδα
δεκαπλός	δεκαπλάσιος	δεκαριά	δεκάδα
εικοσαπλός	εικοσαπλάσιος	εικοσαριά	εικοσάδα
εκατονταπλός	εκατονταπλάσιος	εκατονταριά	εκατοντάδα
	πολλαπλάσιος


Multiple numbers are multiples such as twice, threefold, ten times more, etc. Their meanings do not differ much from proportional numbers.

Multiple numbers are 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives. They can also be expressed using the suffix -διπλος:

τρίδιπλος

τετράδιπλος

πεντάδιπλος


Proportional numbers are 1st & 2nd Declension Adjectives and indicate how many times more, for example, threefold, ten times more, etc. Their meanings do not differ much from multiple numbers. They can also be expressed:

δύο φορες μεγαλύτερος

τρεις φορές μεγαλύτερος


Approximate numbers are 1st Declension Feminine Nouns and express a rough number, for example, about five, about ten, etc.


Group numbers are 1st Declension Feminine Nouns and express groups of things, for example, (a) duo, (a) trio, (a) group of ten, etc.


  Space

A phrase can be used to express an amount of space covered, space between or a space of measurement.

1 The space covered (i.e. distance traversed) or distance from is expressed by the accusative:

Κάθε μέρα τρέχω πέντε χιλιόμετρα.

= Every day I run five kilometers.

Η πόλη είναι είκοσι χιλιόμετρα μακριά.

= The city is twenty kilometers distant.

Η τράπεζα είναι τρείς δρόμους παρακάτω.

= The bank is three streets further down.

2 Measurement or dimension is expressed by the accusative:

Οι τοίχοι είχαν δέκα μέτρα ύψος.

= The walls were ten meters high. (literally, the walls had ten meters in respect of height).

Another more formal way of expressing this using the genitive would be:

Οι τοίχοι είχε ύψος δέκα μέτρων.

= The walls were ten meters high. (literally, the walls had a height of ten meters).


The word for zero is the neuter word μηδέν which is made up of the negative prefix μηδ- and εν (derived from the neuter of the word for one):

	Singular
Nom.	μηδέν
Voc.	---
Acc.	μηδέν
Gen.	μηδενός